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THE  ECOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMAL  LIFE 

IN  AFRICA 

BY 

VEDA  FERN  LEONARD 
A.  B.  University  of  Illinois 
1919 


THESIS 

Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for  the 

Degree  of 

MASTER  OF  ARTS 
IN  ZOOLOGY 

IN 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


1921 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 

June  o. 191TI 

I HEREBY  RECOMMEND  THAT  THE  THESIS  PREPARED  UNDER  MY 

SUPERVISION  BY.  Veda.  Fern  Leonard 

ENTITLED The  Ecological  Distribution  of  Animal  Life 

..in  Africa. 

BE  ACCEPTED  AS  FULFILLING  THIS  PART  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 


Recommendation  concurred  in* 

— Committee 

' on 

Final  Examination* 


^Required  for  doctor’s  degree  but  not  for  master’s 

/y  f 

if  V*  v.  - 


-3- 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 

I.  INTRODUCTION  3 

II.  COMMUNITIES 

A.  Extreme  Desert  -------------------  7 

Sahara;  Damara;  Conclusions. 

B.  Semi-Desert  --------------------  13 

Angola  Coast;  Sudan  Semi-Desert;  Kalahari;  Karoo; 

Atlas  Intermont  Plateaus;  Conclusions. 

C.  Steppe  -----------------------  32 

Somaliland;  Abyssino-Eritrean  Foothills;  Egyptian  Su- 
dan; Hoogeveld;  Gazaland  and  Mozambique;  Conclusions. 

D.  Alpine  Steppe  -------------------  34 

E.  Savanna  ----------------------  36 

Boschveld;  Sudanese  Savanna;  Zambesi  Basin  and  Unyam- 
wezi;  East  African  Mountain  Region;  Conclusions. 

F.  Deciduous  Savanna-Forest  --------------  46 

Drakenberg;  Abyssinian  Highlands;  Light  Forests  and 
Parks;  Conclusions. 

G.  Temperate  Evergreen  Forest  -------------  54 

Mediterranean  Africa;  South  Cape  of  South  Africa. 

H.  Tropical  Evergreen  Forest  -------------  57 

Guinea  Coast;  Congo  Basin. 

III.  Summary  and  General  Conclusions  -----------  63 

IV.  Appendix  of  Scientific  Names  of  Animals  -------  65 

V.  Acknowledgment  and  Bibliography  -----------  78 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/ecologicaldistriOOIeon 


-3- 


THE  ECOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  AFRICA 
I.  Introduction 

A thorough  study  of  the  ecological  distribution  of  ani- 
mal life  in  Africa  would  involve  many  phases,  such  as  the  physiolo- 
gical condition  of  animals  which  determined  their  reactions,  and 
a tabulation  of  all  the  habits  which  exhibited  reactions  to  the 
environment.  My  study,  however,  has  been  restricted  to  a consider- 
ation of  a few  habits,  v/hich,  it  is  hoped,  may  show  some  of  the 
responses  of  animal  life  to  the  plant  and  climatic  influences 
surrounding  it. 

The  method  of  procedure  has  been  to  collect  facts  about 
animal  life  of  Africa,  and  from  these  to  select  the  ones  which 
have  the  greatest  ecological  significance.  These  facts  have  been 
obtained  from  the  works  of  numerous  African  travelers.  (See 
Bibliography) . 

For  the  purpose  of  discussion,  I have  divided  Africa 
arbitrarily  into  eight  regions,  distinguished  by  their  type  of 
vegetation  and  climate.  These  are  Extreme  Desert,  Semi-desert, 
Steppe,  Alpine  Steppe,  Savanna,  Savanna-Forest , Temperate  Ever- 
green Forest,  and  Tropical  Evergreen  Forest.  These  large  regions 
in  turn  have  been  divided  into  areas,  sometimes  separated  geo- 
graphically but  similar  in  type  of  flora  and  climate. 


■ 


My  purpose  has  been  to  study  the  habits  of  the  animals 
of  these  regions,  to  determine,  when  possible,  the  relationship 
between  the  factors,  vegetation  and  climate,  and  (a)  size  of  herd, 
(b)  time  of  birth  of  young,  (d)  daily  rhythm,  and  (d)  social  ten- 
dencies, as  expressed  in  pure  (homogeneous)  and  mixed  groups. 

The  survey  of  each  region  will  follow  approximately 
this  outline: 

1.  Region 

1)  Climate 

a)  Temperature 

(1)  daily  rhythm 

(2)  annual  rhythm 

b)  Rainfall 

(1)  daily  rhythm 

(2)  annual  rhythm 

3)  Vegetation 

3)  Animals 

a)  List  of  animals  and  habits 

4)  Local  regions 

5)  General  Statement 

The  data  on  climate  I have  secured  largely  from  Knox's 
"Climate  of  Africa";  that  on  plant  and  animal  life  from  the  books 
listed  in  the  bibliography.  The  regions  which  have  been  occupied 


' 


■5  y ' |.  a 


-5- 

long  by  the  white  man,  have  had  their  fauna  and  flora  so  modified 
that  definite  facts  concerning  original  conditions  are  hard  to 
obtain;  this  is  particularly  true  of  the  Cape  region  and  of 
North-west  Africa,  about  Morocco,  Algeria,  and  Tunis. 

The  map  is  intended  to  indicate  the  location  of  the 
places  mentioned,  and  the  approximate  extent  of  the  plant -climatic 
regions. 

Explanation  of  Terms: 

After  the  animals  listed  I have  used  symbols  which  are 
to  be  interpreted  as  follows: 

1.  size  of  herd 
a - 1,-3 
b - 3-10 
c - 10-50 
d - 50  or  more 

3.  time  of  year  when  young  are  born 

a.  1st  quarter  ( January-March) 

b.  2nd  quarter 

c.  3rd  quarter 

d.  4th  quarter 
f.  any  time 

3.  daily  rhythm 

a.  diurnal,  active  during  the  day. 

b.  crepuscular,  active  about  sunrise  and  sunset. 

c.  nocturnal,  active  at  night. 


-6- 

4.  social  tendencies 

a.  pure  (homogeneous)  herds 

b.  mixed  herds 

lb  would  then  mean  that  the  animal  went  about  singly  or  in  pairs; 
3b,  that  the  young  were  born  between  April  and  June,  etc. 

The  term  "significant  figures"  applies  when  they  have 
been  obtained  for  40  percent  or  more  of  the  animals  of  a region. 
(See  Table  I). 


■ 


. 


il 


— 7“ 

II.  COMMUNITIES 
A.  Extreme  Desert 

The  desert  is  here  defined  to  include  regions  having  a- 
bout  254  mm.  of  rainfall  annually,  and  a scattered  xerophytic  vege- 
tation. It  consists  roughly  of  two  large  regions,  the  Sahara  and 
Damara  deserts. 

1 . Sahara 

a.  Climate 


The  Sahara  is  not  an  absolutely  rainless  region  as  it  is 
sometimes  supposed.  In  the  North-central  part  rain  falls  usually 
in  September,  but  it  has  also  been  reported  in  November  and  Decem- 
ber. In  the  Hoggar  Highlands  (9-9500  feet)  rain  falls  only  once 
in  3 - 4 years.  In  the  Air  region  on  the  other  hand  rain  usually 
falls  between  June  and  October,  the  amount  and  time  both  being  var- 
iable. In  the  Adgar  mountain  region  rains  with  tornadoes  occur 
three  to  four  times  a year  from  May  to  the  middle  of  August;  it 
is  very  dry  the  rest  of  the  year.  Occasional  tornadoes  in  the 
Southern  Sahara  may  also  bring  rain  in  July  and  August;  it  is  very 
dry  otherwise. 

Due  to  the  lack  of  moisture  in  the  air,  there  is  gener- 
ally a large  daily  variation  in  temperature  as  well  as  an  annual 
one.  A temperature  of  50°  C.  is  not  uncommon  in  summer  at  midday, 
and  0°  C.  in  winter  at  early  morning. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  dearth  of  vegetation  is  due  not  only  to  such  a cli- 


. 


' 


-8- 


mate  but  also  to  the  soil,  which  in  some  areas  forms  a rocky  desert, 
in  others  a pebble  or  gravel  surface,  and  in  still  others  sand 
dunes.  The  vegetation  of  the  desert  proper  consists  largely  of 
thorn  bush  and  coarse  grasses  growing  in  the  valleys  or  channels. 

In  the  northern  part  plants  begin  to  grow  in  January,  and  are  best 
from  February  to  April,  after  which  the  sun  burns  up  all  but  the 
deeper  rooted  forms. 

Plants  include  the  agul,  kharit  bush,  tamarisk,  zilla, 
march,  zygophyllum,  cleome,  acacias,  Abyssinian  aloe,  and  tabbes 
grass.  In  channels  occur  rank  grass,  rushes,  and  bushes.  In  rainy 
years  may  be  found  Leobordia,  Pulicaria,  Brochia,  Forskalea,  An- 
chusa.  Reseda,  and  Lotus  arabicus.  The  colocynth  is  a medicinal 
plant.  Others  here  are  3enna,  aromatic  Artemesia,  Calatropis  tree, 
and  Baernia  cor  data. 

At  oases  are  coarse  grass,  thorn  bushes,  doum-  and  date- 
palms,  sunt  trees,  and  half a. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  area  include  the  fox  (la),  common 
fennec  (la,  3c,  4a),  hyrax  (la),  spiny  mice,  Egyptian  jerboa  (3c), 
sand  mice  (3a,  3c),  broad-tailed  jerboa  (3c,  4a),  and  Barbary 
mouse . 

The  birds  of  the  Sahara  include  migrating  buzzards,  gold- 
en eagle,  goshawk,  Falco  tinnunculus,  F.  fledeggi,  hen-harrier, 
mountain  swallow,  desert  lark,  Bucanetes  githagineus,  Dromolaea 
leucura,  Saxicola  lugens,  S.  deserti,  stone  curlew,  plover,  desert 


oourser,  Curaorius  isabellinu3,  ostrich,  Capri  mulgus  aegyptius, 

Otis  bubara,  Merops  apiaster',  M.  persicus,  Drymoeca  saharae.  Cra- 
ter opus  numidious,  Calandritua  brachydactyla. 

Reptiles  are  Eremias,  Aoanthoclactylus,  ground  agamas, 
mountain  monitors,  snakes,  Psammophis  sibilans,  Coelopeltis  mon- 
spessularia,  Zamenis  hippocrepis,  Lacerta  pater,  and  Scincus  offi- 
cinalis. 

Invertebrates  include  Cicindela,  Copris,  Onitis,  Ateuchus 
sacer,  Anthis  sexmaculata,  A.  venator,  Colias,  Pieris,  painted-lady 
butterflies,  wild  bees,  Vespa  and  Eumenes  (wasps),  fleas,  Psyche 
caterpillars  and  sand  wasps.  Eprepia  pulchra,  ants,  flesh  fly, 
hoverer  fly,  dragon  fly,  locusts,  crickets,  Empusa,  mantis,  hemip- 
tera,  centrotus,  bird  spider,  camel  tick,  poisonous  tick,  red  water- 
mite,  and  a large  scorpion  are  others. 

d.  Local  Regions.  Oases 

The  mammals  at  the  oases  are  the  Egyptian  jackal  (la,  3c), 
gray  fox  (la),  hyaena  (la,  3c),  wolf,  Loder ' 3 gazelle  (3c),  and 
hare  (3c). 

Birds  include  the  hoopoe,  palm  doves,  sparrow  Passer 
hispaniolensis,  golden-crested  crane,  teal,  jack-snipe,  sandgrouse, 
wild  pigeon,  duck,  quail,  snipe,  heron,  marabou,  black  and  white 
ibis,  and  geese. 

e.  General  Statement 

There  are  immense  numbers  of  insects  although  the  species 
are  few.  As  a whole  they  cluster  about  the  desert  flowers  and  in 


■ 


‘ 


' 


. 


-10- 


the  more  rocky  parts  where  water  is  sometimes  present.  Locusts 
occur  everywhere  and  at  all  seasons,  but  are  much  more  numerous 
and  destructive  in  some  years  than  in  others. 

Desert  animals  are  chiefly  nocturnal,  and  go  about 
singly  or  in  pairs.  (Table  I). 

The  rodent  group  is  prominent  here,  and  one  form,  the 
jerboa,  exhibits  a physiological  condition  suited  to  desert  life 
by  becoming  torpid  in  damp  or  rainy  seasons.  The  frog,  scorpion, 
and  insects  3how  an  opposite  reaction  and  are  torpid  in  dry  sea- 
sons. 

2.  Damara  Desert 

The  other  desert  tract  is  the  Damara  desert  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  German  South-west  Africa. 

a.  Climate 

The  climate  is  characterized  by  a fairly  even  tempera- 
ture. At  Swakopmund  the  mean  daily  temperature  at  7 A.  M.  varies 
between  17  and  9.6°  C.  through  the  year;  at  2 P.  M.  between  20.5 
and  13.6°  C;  and  at  9 P.  M.  between  18  and  11.2°  C.  The  tempera- 
ture at  Walfish  Bay  is  subject  to  sudden  change;  thick  fogs  and 
mist  are  common  in  morning  and  evening. 

The  rainfall  is  comparatively  slight.  At  Luderitz  Bay 
the  annual  rainfall  is  20  mm.,  at  Walfish  Bay  8 mm.,  at  Swakopmund 
21  mm.,  and  at  Zesfontein  74  mm.  At  Walfish  Bay  the  total  precipi- 
tation for  four  years  was  84  mm.,  one  year  there  being  no  rain 


-11- 


whatever.  In  general,  there  is  a oold  dry  season  from  May  to  Sept- 
ember, a hot  season  from  October  to  April,  and  a wet  season  from 
January  to  March.  The  rate  of  absorption  and  evaporation  is  very 
great . 


b.  Vegetation 

In  the  Damara  desert  there  are  often  large  sandy  tracts 
without  vegetation.  In  depressions  or  troughs  are  thorn  bushes 
and  tress,  while  scattered  over  the  plain  is  the  characteristic 
Welwitschia  mirabilis. 

Other  plant  forms  belonging  to  this  region  are  Acantho- 
sicyos  horrida,  Pachipodium,  Sesamothamnus,  Myrothamnus,  Echino- 
thamnus  pechueli,  and  Adansonia  digitata.  Around  Walfish  Bay  are 
the  naras,  (a  creeper  with  gourds),  tamarisk  tree,  a few  dew  plants, 
Acacia  giraffa,  sand  reeds,  and  on  rocks,  air  plants  with  scarlet 
flowers. 

c . Animals 

Among  the  mammals  of  this  region  are  the  lion,  gazelle, 
klip springer,  zebra,  gemsbok,  giraffe,  rhinoceros,  and  field  mice. 

Birds  include  Francolinus  adspersus,  fly  catchers,  and 
social  grosbeaks. 

Smaller  life  consists  of  fleas,  several  species  of  bush 
tick,  lizards,  beetles,  many  butterflies,  a wasp-like  fly,  and 
swarms  of  scorpions,  which  are  dormant  till  the  approach  of  the 
rainy  season. 


-12- 


About  Walfish  Bay  occur  many  waterfowl:  geese,  ducks, 

cormorant 3,  pelicans,  flamingoes,  and  sandpipers.  Along  Swakop 
river  course  are  parrots. 

3.  Conclusions  - Desert 

The  desert  has  a fauna  whose  animals  are  either  almost 
independent  of  water  or  can  remain  torpid  till  the  time  of  rain. 
They  are  chiefly  nocturnal,  go  about  in  small  parties,  and  do  not 
associate  or  mix  with  other  forms. 


■ 


-13- 


B.  Semi -Desert 

A3  a transition  between  desert  and  steppe,  occur  three 
kinds  of  semi-  or  steppe-desert,  (a)  shrub  covered,  (b)  succulent, 

(c)  grass-tree  semi-desert.  The  first  or  shrub  covered,  is  found 
on  the  coastal  region  of  Angola,  and  in  a broad  strip  of  land  300 
mile 3 wide,  extending  east  to  west  across  the  continent  just  south 
of  the  Sahara. 

1.  Angola  Coast 

a.  Climate 

The  temperature  at  Mossamedes,  in  Angola,  ranges  from 
30°  C.  in  the  hot  season  to  5.5°  C.  between  June  and  September. 

At  Loanda  the  annual  rainfall  is  270  mm.,  and  the  rainy  3ea3on  is 
from  November  to  May.  Clouds  and  mist  are  common. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  vegetation  of  this  region  consists  largely  of  euphor- 
bias and  low  plants.  The  welwitschia  is  present  in  the  southern 
part  of  this  area,  occurring  as  far  north  a3  14°  S.  Latitude. 

Other  characteristic  plants  are  a leafless  creeper  Cassytha,  very 
abundant  on  bushes  and  trees,  stunted  grass,  Sanseviera  angolensis, 
orchilla  weed,  shrubby  jasmine,  Bimba  tree,  and  Hydnora  (a  parasite), 

c . Animals 

The  mammals  present  here  are  Anubis  baboon  (4a),  lion 
(la,  3c,  4a),  brov/n  hyaena  (la,  3c),  eland  (lc,  d,  3a,  4a),  spring- 
bok (id,  2d,  3a,  4a),  Angola  pali,  Damara  dikdik,  white-lipped 

I 

= — - ...  \\ 


. 


-14- 


duiker,  zebra,  buffalo,  porcupine  (la,  3c),  armadillo,  and  ant- 
bear  (3o). 

d.  General  Statement 

The  tortoise  hibernates  in  holes  in  the  rocks  during  the 
cacimbo  or  cold  season.  Insect  life  is  usually  scarce  and  appar- 
ent for  only  a few  weeks  in  the  hot  season.  The  mantis,  cater- 
pillars, dull  moths,  and  butterflies  are  the  chief  forms  seen. 

The  food  of  the  Anubis  baboon  is  chiefly  the  welwitschia, 
a curious  plant  never  having  more  than  two  leaves,  which  split 
into  ribbon-like  strands.  The  baboon  eats  the  woody  stem  and 
other  exposed  parts. 


2. 


desert . 


Sudan  Semi-Desert 

The  strip  south  of  the  Sahara  is  known  as  the  Sudan  Semi- 
a.  Climate 


At  Kayes  in  upper  Senegal  the  mean  annual  temperature 
is  29.4°  C;  the  mean  range  14.3°  C.  The  highest  monthly  means 
are  42°  C.  in  April  and  May,  and  the  lowest  16.6°  C.  in  January. 

The  temperature  rises  from  January  to  May,  falls  in  June  to  the 
mean  annual  temperature,  increases  to  October,  then  falls  again 
till  the  minimum  is  reached.  August  is  the  rainiest  month,  al- 
though the  heaviest  rains  occur  in  September  and  October.  The 
mean  annual  rainfall  at  Kayes  is  736.6  mm. 

In  Northern  Nigeria  the  nights  are  cold  most  of  the  year. 
The  daily  range  of  temperature  in  December  and  January  is  37.8^  - 


-15- 


15.6°  C;  in  April  45.6°  - 25.6°  C.  Rains  may  occur  from  June  to 
September,  but  are  slight  exoept  in  August,  when  there  is  generally 
one  wet  week. 

In  the  Bayuda  desert,  west  of  Khartoum,  rains  are  uncer- 
tain, but  usually  occur  in  June,  July,  or  August.  There  may  be 
several  years  without  rain  and  then  a deluge.  Khartoum  has  a mean 
annual  rainfall  of  ICS. 7 mm.  a year;  Kassala  2S4.6  mm. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  vegetation  of  the  Nubian  coast  consists  of  suada  and 
patches  of  Avicennia.  Westward  near  the  Nile  occur  Scrophularaceae, 
grass  and  shade  acacias.  In  Dar-Fur  the  characteristic  plants  are 
a coarse  and  a fine  grass,  mimosas,  desert  box,  euphorbias,  candle- 
trees,  senna,  camomile  and  Sahara  melon.  Thorny  tracts  of  pollard 
bushes,  irregular  loose  shrubs  and  small  trees  are  sprinkled  over 
prairies  of  Al-Fah  grass  in  some  regions.  Under  these  3hrubs  may 
grow  scrophularia,  campanula,  mimosas  and  grasses. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  the  Sudan  Semi-desert  are  the  lion, 
jackal,  hyaena  (la),  addax,  Dama  gazelle,  oryx  (id),  white  oryx 
(4a),  beira  (la),  Dorcas  gazelle,  giraffe,  hare,  rabbit,  gundi 
(3a),  and  jerboa. 

Birds  of  the  region  are  pheasants,  guinea  fowl,  wild 
goose  and  duck,  pigeon,  snipe,  magpie,  owls,  turtle  dove,  vulture, 
and  ostrich.  Lower  vertebrates  include  2-horned  viper,  rhinoceros 


-16- 


viper,  boa  constrictor,  tortoise  (in  arid  parts),  oily  lizard,  and 
frogs  which  are  dormant  except  at  the  time  of  rains. 

Invertebrates  are  represented  by  beetles,  formicide  and 
myrmicide  ants,  hornet,  gray  night  and  afternoon  moths,  termites, 
locusts,  walking  sticks,  house  flies,  camel  flies,  sand  fleas, 
camel  ticks,  scorpions,  centipedes,  crimson  spider  and  Galeodes. 

The  gazelle  is  almost  the  only  large  animal  seen  in  the 
poor  parts,  although  the  tortoise  and  lizard  are  present  there. 
Birds  are  most  frequent  in  low  thorny  thickets  and  channels. 

3.  Kalahari 

The  succulent  semi-desert  comprises  areas  in  South  Africa 
known  as  the  Kalahari  and  Karoo.  The  Kalahari  is  roughly  the 
plateau  of  Central  and  Western  South  Africa  north  of  the  Orange 
river . 

a.  Climate 

The  winter  in  this  region  is  from  April  to  September. 

The  temperature  varies  at  Kuruman  from  21.1°  and  22.8°  C.  from  Nov- 
ember to  January,  to  1,1°  and  1.7°  C.  in  June  and  July.  The  mean 
daily  range  is  1S.S0  C.j  the  monthly  range  26.6°  C.  The  rains 
occur  between  November  and  April,  and  the  amount  may  range  from 
482  to  635  mm. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  vegetation  characteristic  of  the  Kalahari  is  poa 


grass,  acacia  thorn  bushes,  and  succulents,  scattered  everywhere 


. 


' 


-17- 


but  in  the  valleys  and  dry  salt  pans.  In  thickets  in  the  stream 
beds  are  aristida  and  andropogen  grass,  tree  euphorbias,  aloes  and 
sage  brush.  At  the  salt  pans  grow  arrow  grass  and  baobab,  sur- 
rounded by  dense  bush  forest.  In  the  northern  parts  are  many 
baobabs  and  mopani  woods. 

c.  Animals 

Mammals  of  this  region  are  the  brown  hyaena  (la,  3c), 
harnessed  jackal  (3c),  Burchell's  cat,  gray  jackal  (3c), lion  (la,b, 
3b, o),  giraffe,  wild  swine,  quagga  zebra  (2c,  4b),  gemsbuck  (lc), 
kudu  (la,  b),  eland  (la,b,d,  2b,  4a),  Zulu  hartebeest,  gazelle, 
striped  gnu,  springbok  (2d,  4a),  duikerbok,  steinbok  (2d),  blesbok 
(2c,  4a),  and  pa^Ja. 

Birds  are  usually  about  the  salt  pans  and  include  the 
wild  geese,  wild  ostriches,  storks,  guinea  fowl,  starling,  grunter, 
ducks,  spoonbill  and  great  horned  owl,  weaver  bird,  francolin, 
grouse,  and  otis  kori. 

Other  animals  present  are  large  serpents,  puff-adder, 
tortoise,  and  tiger  snails,  termites,  wild  bees,  green  larvae  and 
wasps. 

e.  General  Statement 

The  giraffe  and  steinbok  can  live  for  six  to  seven  months 
far  from  water. 

Some  forms,  particularly  the  zebra,  blesbok,  and  steinbok 
were  once  present  hers  in  vast  herds,  but  these  have  been  largely 
depleted  by  the  white  man. 


. 


. 


-18- 


The  kudu,  eland  and  giraffe  are  migratory;  the  former 
keeps  to  the  rivers  in  the  dry  season,  scattering  over  the  desert 
when  rains  come;  the  eland  migrates  eastward  in  February  and  March, 
and  the  giraffe  goe3  to  the  mountain  woods  at  the  first  of  the 
drought . 

4.  Karoo 

The  Karoo,  the  second  of  the  succulent  semi-deserts  occu- 
pies the  plain  south  of  the  Orange  river,  in  the  central  part  of 
South  Africa. 

a.  Climate 

As  in  the  Kalahari,  the  coldest  weather  occurs  in  June 
and  July;  the  warmest  in  January  and  February.  In  the  Southern 
Karoo  the  mean  temperature  for  February  is  24.3°  C,,  for  July  10.6° 
C.;  the  daily  range  is  large  and  fairly  regular.  The  average  amount 
of  cloud  is  36% ; the  annual  rainfall  is  268.2  mm.  In  West  Central 
Karoo  the  mean  temperature  ranges  from  15.4°  in  summer  to  10°  C.  in 
winter.  The  heaviest  rains  fall  in  March;  the  annual  rainfall  is 
228.9  mm.  In  East  Central  Karoo  the  mean  temperature  is  17.2°  C. 

The  absolute  range  of  temperature  at  Gra&f  Reinet  is  from  42.2°  C. 
to  -1.3°  C.  At  Cradock  in  Northern  Karoo,  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture is  16.7°  C.j  the  mean  ranges  from  22.4°  C.  in  February  to 
10°  C.  in  June  and  July.  There  is  very  little  rain  in  the  Western 
part,  and  about  27.9  mm.  in  the  Central  part. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  vegetation  of  the  Karoo  comprises,  in  general,  bush 


. 

. : 


-19- 


covered  hills  and  plains  with  succulents  and  low  herbs;  trees  are 
scarce  except  along  stream  courses.  Specifically  the  plants  of  this 
region  are  tufted  karoo  plant,  beibosch  and  brachbosch  (all  food 
plants),  cineraria,  mimosa.  Pelargonium,  Marguerites,  aloes,  wild 
asparagus,  a profusion  of  prickly  pear,  finger  poll,  wild  tobacco 
and  candlebush.  About  Richtersveld  are  many  succulents,  - one,  a 
m e s erabr y an t h emum , is  the  size  of  a cabbage.  At  the  mouth  of  the 
Orange  river  grow  pelargonium,  heliophila,  Roredula,  and  gazania  of 
a variety  of  species.  The  plains  in  Great  Bushmanland  are  covered 
with  heavy  headed  shocks  of  toa  grass  in  summer,  while  on  the  hill- 
sides and  at  the  meeting  of  hill  and  plain  are  immense  dragon  aloes, 
quiver-trees  and  shrubs,  (Rhus). 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  region  include  a monkey,  Chacma  bab- 
oon, jackal  (la,  b,  3c),  leopard  (3c),  badger  (3c),  pencilled  mun- 
goose,  red  meercat  (3a,  4a),  gray  meercat  (3a,  4a),  wild  cat  (3c), 
oryx.  Cape  (Zulu)  hartebeest  (lc,  d.  Sc,  d),  eland  (la,  b,  d,  3b, 
4a),  gazelle,  gem3bok  (lb),  springbok  (lb,  d,  2d,  4a),  brown  duiker, 
bontebok  (id),  klipspringer,  steinbok  (2d),  gnu  (4b),  hippopotamus, 
desert  mice,  rock  rabbit,  African  jumping  hare  (3a,  d,  3c,  4a),  por- 
cupine (la,  2a,  d,  3o),  ant  bear  (3c),  and  ant-lion. 

Birds  of  this  region  are  the  white-eared  bustard,  kapok 
vogeltje,  buzzard,  night  flying  grouse,  sand  grouse,  pheasants, 
paauw,  "Knorhaan”  bustard,  Dikkop  bustard,  red-winged  and  gray- 
winged partridges,  honey  bird,  bee-eater,  ibis,  falcon,  aas  vogel, 
owl,  goat-sucker,  butcher-bird  and  golden  oriole. 

“iTT— , — .■  ■ ■ ■ i i 


-20- 


Among  the  lower  vertebrates  are  horned  adder,  yellow  co- 
bra, night  adder,  coral  snake,  tree  snakes,  lizards,  chameleon  and 
speckled  toads.  Invertebrates  include  centipedes,  scorpions,  large 
tarantulas,  blue  fly,  Jolopis  gariepino  (beetle),  J.  pneumora,  lo- 
cust, butterfly,  moth  and  mantis. 

d.  General  Statement 

The  springboks  here  are  about  twice  the  size  of  the 
desert  animals.  These  migrate  annually  across  the  desert  in  search 
of  green  food.  Winter  rain3  occur  in  the  mountains  between  Bush- 
manland  and  the  coastal  desert,  and  a3  the  young  are  born  in  winter 
the  does  migrate  to  obtain  food.  During  the  treks  the  rams  congre- 
gate in  separate  herds. 

The  sand  grouse  come  in  early  morning  from  the  desert  in 
incredible  numbers  to  drink  at  the  pools  or  springs,  and  then  has- 
ten back.  Around  rocky  cliffs  occur  centipedes,  scorpions,  taran- 
tulas (often  in  hundreds)  lizards  and  rock-rabbit 3. 

5.  Atlas  Interm ont  Plateaus 

The  third  type  of  semi-desert  is  the  grass-tree  semi- 
desert  or  Atlas  Intermont  Plateau.  This  region,  as  its  name  sug- 
gests, consists  of  the  plateaus  between  the  Northern  and  Saharan 
Atlas  and  south  of  the  latter. 

a.  Climate 

Here  the  largest  amount  of  rain  falls  in  spring;  July 
and  August  are  usually  rainless.  High  extremes  of  temperature  are 

== ssss  a =====-=: — 


. 


■ 


' 


1 


-31- 

experienced  which  may  range  from  -10°  C.  in  winter  to  40°  C.  in 
summer  when  the  sirocco  is  blowing.  The  annual  rainfall  for  Mor- 
occo is  381  - 433  mm.,  for  Biskra  300.6  mm.,  and  for  Batna  398.8  mm. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  high  plains  are  covered  with  scattered  tufts  of  alfa 
or  esparta  grass.  These  are  broken  up  in  some  places  by  dry  river- 
beds leading  to  innumerable  salt-lake3  or  "shotts."  The  river  beds 
are  covered  chiefly  with  small  bunches  of  wormwood;  the  salt  lakes 
are  surrounded  by  fleshy  salt-bushes  or  succulents.  On  small  dunes 
occur  desert  grass  or  "drinn"  (aristida  pungens) . Trees  when  pres- 
ent are  in  isolated,  thin  orchards  in  the  more  fertile  moist  hollows, 
and  are  the  size  and  shape  of  such  shrubs  as  batoum  pistacio  and 
thorny  jujube  tree. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  region  are  the  Arui  (la,  b,  4a),  Nu- 
bian ibex,  Bubal  hartebeest,  Dorca3  gazelle.  Atlas  gazelle,  Dama 
(Addra)  gazelle,  and  Barbary  striped  mouse. 

6.  Conclusions  - Semi-desert. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Semi-Desert  various  antelopes  are 
said  to  have  once  existed  in  immense  numbers,  - the  oryx  in  the 
Sudan  Semi-desert,  the  springbok,  zebra,  blesbok,  and  bontebok  in 
the  Kalahari  and  Karoo.  As  a reaction  to  the  seasons  an  annual  mi- 
gration on  the  part  of  the  eland,  kudu  and  giraffe  in  the  Kalahari, 
and  the  springbok  in  the  Karoo  occurs. 


■ 

' 


-22- 


1 


C.  Steppe 

1.  Somaliland 

The  steppe  is  the  third  large  vegetational  area.  It  may 
be  of  two  sorts,  a bush  steppe  and  a grass  steppe.  Belonging  to  the 
first  kind  is  a region  called  Somaliland,  which  includes  the  Italian 
Somaliland,  *a  part  of  Abyssinia  adjoining  it,  most  of  British  East 
Africa  and  some  of  German  East  Africa. 

a.  Climate 

In  Italian  Somaliland,  the  winds  from  the  N.  E.  monsoon 
blow  from  November  to  April,  and  a south  wind  replaces  it  from  May 
to  October.  The  climate  is  essentially  that  of  the  southern  hemis- 
phere, the  summer  being  cooler  than  the  spring.  At  Mogdishu  the 
morning  temperature  varies  from  25°  and  28°  C.  in  spring  to  21°  and 
33°  C.  in  summer.  At  Logh,  March  and  April  are  the  hottest  months, 
July  the  coldest  one,  and  the  daily  range  of  temperature  is  consider- 
able and  variable.  There  are  two  rainy  seasons. 

For  the  coastal  strip  of  British  East  Africa  the  annual 
range  of  temperature  is  between  21  and  33°  C.  As  a whole  the  tem- 
perature is  high  but  not  excessive;  the  relative  humidity  is  also 
high.  On  the  highlands  there  is  a range  of  10  - 26.7°  C.  There 
are  generally  two  wet  seasons,  one  from  November  to  December,  the 
other  from  March  to  May.  From  July  to  September  are  cold  months. 
There  is  a tendency  to  sterility  and  a deficiency  in  rainfall  and 
vegetation  in  the  southwest  toward  the  German  frontier,  and  in  the 
north  around  Lakes  Baringo  and  Rudolph. 


-23- 


In  the  interior  plateaus  of  German  East  Africa,  on  the 
east  3hore  of  Victoria  Nyanza  and  in  Masailand,  the  precipitation 
is  small.  At  Shiratu  the  annual  rainfall  is  645.2  mm.;  the  dry 
season  occurs  between  July  and  October;  the  rainy  season  between 
November  and  May;  there  is  but  little  rain  in  January. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  vegetation  of  Somaliland  proper  consists  of  a sprink- 
ling of  umbrella  acacias  and  other  low  thorn  trees;  at  places, 
bushes  form  open  scrub,  and  in  moister  spots  occur  light  acacia 
woods  with  stiff  grass  as  undergrowth.  The  plants  here  are  candel- 
abra euphorbia,  aloe,  tamarix,  calotropis,  indigo,  and  salvadora. 

In  Jubaland,  between  Kismayu  and  the  Lori an  Swamp  is  a 
vegetation  resembling  that  of  Somaliland,  but  generally  richer.  From 
the  coast  inward  may  be  seen  successively  green  and  thorn  scrub, 
yak  trees,  acacias  and  mimosas;  high  bush  alternating  with  meadows; 
in  valleys  yak,  mimosas,  creepers,  green  shrub,  tall  grass  and 
flowers;  and  on  plateaus  wait-a-bit  thorn  bush  and  ground  cacti. 

At  swamps  occur  the  umbrella  tree,  acacias,  euphorbias,  conifers, 
waja  trees,  doum  palm,  msuaki  bush  and  elephant  grass. 

British  East  Africa  north  and  east  of  Victoria  Nyanza 
comprises  the  desert  nyika  and  highland  veldt  zones.  The  former 
has  a flora  composed  of  scattered  thorn  bush,  euphorbias,  aloes, 
sansevieras,  baobab,  doum  palm,  flat-topped  acacias  and  Commiphora. 
Grassy  plains  and  absolute  desert  are  rare.  The  veldt  comprises 
rolling  prairies  of  grass  with  scattered  growths  of  acacias  and 
candelabra  euphorbias. 


-24- 


North-eastern  German  Ea3t  Africa  haa  a flora  similar  to 
the  nyika,  composed  of  bush  acacia,  euphorbias,  terminalias,  suc- 
culents and  monkey-bread  trees. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  region  are  a monkey,  doguera  baboon 
(led),  silver-backed  jackal,  leopard  (3c),  civet  cat  (la,  3c,  3c), 
hunting  dog  (2b-c,  3ab,  4a),  pigmy  jackal,  lion  (la,  b,  2f,  3c), 
chita  (la,  3b,  4a,),  spotted  hyaena  (la,  b,  3c,  4a),  Swaynes  harte- 
beest  (id),  Coke  hartebeest  (2d,  4b),  Neumann's  hartebeest,  Jackson 
hartebeest,  Uganda  hartebeest,  Nakuru  hartebeest,  Tora  hartebeest, 
(la,b,3c),  Somali  dikdik  (la, 4a),  Salt's  dikdik,  Phillip's  dikdik, 
Gunther's  dikdik,  Swayne's  dikdik,  white-spotted  dikdik,  Harar  dik- 
dik, Kirk  dikdik,  gerenuk  (la, b, 3c, 4b) , Grant's  gazelle  (lb,c,2b,rb) 
Speke's  gazelle,  Pelzeln's  gazelle  (lb),  Peter's  gazelle,  Sommer- 
ring's  gazelle,  Thomson's  gazelle  (la, o),  Clark's  gazelle  (lb, 2c), 
topi  (lc),  beisa  oryx  (lb, c,d, 2a, 3b) , hartebeest  (lb,d, 3f , 4b) , Bo- 
hor  reedbuck,  arrola  (la, c, 2d, 3b) , lesser  kudu  (qa,b,3b),  waterbuck 
(lb,c,3b),  kudu  (lb, 2d, 3b, 4a) , impalla  (lb, c, 2d, 3b, c) , bushbuck, 

(qa, 3c),  Haggard's  oribi,  eland  (lb, c, 2d, 3b) , wildebeest  (lc,2c,3a, 
c),  klipspringer,  steinbok  (la,  3ac),  kob  (lc),  roan  (3a, c),  Kenia 
oribi  (la,b,3a, c),  mountain  reedbuck  (la,b, 3b,c^suni,  duiker  (la), 
Urori  duiker,  fringe-eared  antelope,  5-horned  giraffe,  Somali  gir- 
affe (lb,c),  Kilimanjaro  giraffe,  elephant  (lb),  Grevy's  zebra 
(lb,c,2b,c,4b) , wart  hog  (2f,3b),  buffalo  (lb,d).  Cape  buffalo, 
quagga  zebra  (lb,d,4b),  bush-pig  (2b, 3c, 4a),  gundi,  Naked  sand-rat. 


I 


-25- 


The  birds  of  this  region  are  hornbill,  vult urine  guinea- 
fowl,  crane,  pelican,  guinea  fowl,  francolin,  marabou  stork,  teal, 
honeybird,  dove,  white  egret,  weaver-bird,  corncrake,  miredrum, 
heron,  golden  cuckoo,  night-hawks,  kestrel  hawks,  Egyptian  goose, 
kingfisher,  clapper-bills,  ibis,  goadsucker,  tick-birds,  white  peli- 
cans, and  buffalo  birds.  A large  green  snake  and  a frog  are  the 
only  small  animals  I have  found  mentioned. 

Invertebrates  include  mosquito,  fly,  wood-lice,  giant 
spider,  white  moth,  and  locusts. 

d.  General  Statement 

The  Arrola  or  Hunter's  Hartebeest  is  not  found  west  of 
40°  E.  Longitude,  or  north  of  0°35'  S.  Latitude  and  is  essentially 
a desert  dweller.  Grant's  gazelle  is  another  form  almost  independ- 
ent of  water.  In  general,  the  dense  bush  and  lack  of  water  in  South 
Jubaland  allow  only  bu3h-loving  animals,  who  are  fairly  independent 
of  water,  to  live  there.  Elephants  frequent  the  river  forests  in 
the  rainy  season. 

The  rains  make  an  enormous  difference  in  animal  distri- 
bution. With  their  approach,  the  animals  scatter  widely  over  the 
plains,  but  in  time  of  drought  they  keep  fairly  close  to  the  water 
supplies.  The  rainy  season  is  preeminently  the  time  for  the  birds 
to  rear  their  young,  and  waterways  at  that  time  are  alive  with  this 
kind  of  life. 

Several  animals  in  this  area  associate  in  herds  of  50  to 
as  many  as  200;  there  is,  however,  about  an  even  distribution  of 
the  number  of  species  among  the  small  and  large  sized  groups. Table  1. 


-36- 


The  larger  part  of  the  animal 3 are  either  crepuscular  or 
nooturnal.  The  elephant  manifests  an  annual  rhythm  by  keeping  to 
the  forests  in  the  rainy  season;  the  wildebeest  migrates  in  thous- 
ands during  the  drought . 

The  hunting  dog  is  the  only  carnivore  which  goes  about 
in  packs  of  considerable  size. 

2.  Abyssino-Eritrean  Foothills. 

The  second  region  belonging  to  the  bush-steppe  is  called 
Abyssino-Eritrean  foothills.  This  consists  of  hills  and  terraces 
separating  the  low  Somali  plains  from  the  highlands  and  extends 
from  Cape  Guard afui  along  the  hilly  ranges  of  Eritrea  and  northern 
Abyssinia. 

a.  Climate 

On  the  Eritrean  plateaus,  3-5000  ft.,  the  mean  annual 
shade  temperature  varies  between  15  and  35°  C.  The  climate  is 
fairly  warm.  Abundant  rain  storms  occur,  especially  in  July  and 
August  during  the  afternoon  and  night.  In  the  maritime  zone  there 
is  little  rain.  The  mean  annual  temperature  there  is  31.4°  C . , 
ranging  from  a mean  of  25.5°  C in  January  to  36.9°  C.  in  June.  At 
Berbera  the  absolute  maximum  temperature  is  46°  C.,  and  the  absolute 
minimum  5°  C.;  at  Zeila  corresponding  figures  are  41. lw  C.  and  17.2° 
C.  The  annual  rainfall  at  Massau  is  184,2  mm.  In  the  Haud  and 
Nogel  plains  districts  rains  occur  in  April  and  May,  and  September 
and  October. 


-37- 

b.  Vegetation 

This  region  has  a more  varied,  vegetation  than  Somaliland 
proper.  Grass,  thorn-bush,  and  acacia  scrubs,  orchard-like  wood- 
and  grass-land  are  specific  forms.  Characteristic  here  are  also 
candelabra  euphorbia,  aloes,  dragon  trees,  andenium  trees  and  gum 
acacias.  On  the  dry  hills  of  Eritrea  are  forests  of  balsam  trees, 
leafless  except  for  a few  weeks  in  the  year.  In  the  cloud  belt  are 
forests  of  junipers,  podocarpus,  and  tree -heaths  alternating  with 
pastures. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  region  are  the  Nisnas  monkey,  Nubian 
Ibex  (3b, c),  Abyssinian  ibex.  Salt's  dikdik  (la, 3c),  Phillip' 3 dik- 
dik,  Beira  (la),  Erythraean  gazelle,  Sommerring's  gazelle,  Isabelle 
gazelle,  and  African  wild  as 3. 

d.  General  Statement 

The  breeding  season  of  the  Nubian  Ibex  is  September;  after 
this  the  males  leave  the  herds  until  the  rainy  season,  returning 
in  October  and  November. 

3.  Egyptian  Sudan 

The  Egyptian  Sudan  constitutes  a third  bush-steppe  area. 
Extending  southward  from  the  Libyan  desert,  across  the  Nile  to  the 
Abyssinian  plateau  and  to  Lake  Rudolph;  this  region  is  somewhat 
transitional,  approaching  in  the  south  the  savanna  types. 


■ 


. 


-28- 

a.  Climate 

In  the  Sudan,  the  summers  are  very  hot  with  a maximum 
temperature  of  53.2°  C.,  but  the  nights  are  always  oool  and  the  pre- 
vailing winds  in  the  Nile  valley  are  from  the  north  except  in  the 
rainy  season.  On  the  Blue  Kile,  the  rainy  season  is  from  May  through 
October.  March  to  May  is  the  hot  season,  August  to  October  still 
hotter,  and  December  to  January  cool.  South  of  here  to  the  Sobat 
River,  the  rainfall  is  heavy,  increasing  from  north  to  south.  The 
rainy  season  lasts  from  May  to  November.  On  the  White  Nile  plain 
the  dry  season  lasts  from  October  to  the  middle  of  June;  rains  are 
abundant  from  June  to  October.  In  Kordofan  the  rains  last  from  mid- 
June  to  the  end  of  October. 

b.  Vegetation 

In  this  region  the  thorny  vegetation  increases  to  make  a 
vast  thicket  in  the  plains  and  valleys,  while  grass,  shrubs  and 
small  trees  are  on  the  hills.  Here  occur  monkey-bread  tree,  "os- 
trich” and  "giraffe"  trees,  and  cactus  ropes  among  the  thickets. 
Acacia  arabica  and  thorny  kittur  bush,  Aoacia  mellifera,  are  char- 
acteristic here.  Along  the  river  banks  are  forests  of  sunt,  Acacia 
arabica,  heglig  (Balanites  aegyptiaca),  hashab,  and  thickets  of  A. 
nubica  and  Kittur  bush.  Along  the  Blue  Nile  grow  babanus,  Ano- 
geissus  leiocarpus,  baobabs,  Sterculiacinerea,  African  mahogany, 
rubber-producing  lianas,  and  prairies  of  tall  coarse  grass. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  region  are  Schlegel’s  guenon,  Nisnas 


— Ji 


-29- 


guenon,  Arabian  baboon  (id),  yellow  baboon,  chita  (la, 3a)  red- 
tailed mungoose,  Coke's  hartebeest  (2d,  4b),  Mrs.  Gray's  waterbuck 
(id),  Tora  hartebeest,  Lelwel  hartebeest  (lb,c,2a),  Abyssinian 
oribi  (la,b,3b),  white-eared  kob  (id),  Bohor  reedbuck,  tiang,  Abys- 
sinian defassa,  Heuglin's  gazelle.  Mongala  gazelle,  bushbuck,  white 
rhinoceros  (la,b,3b,c),  wart  hog  (3b),  giraffe  (lb,c)  and  buffalo 
lb,c) . 

4.  Hoogeveld. 

The  Hoogeveld  belongs  to  the  grass  3teppe  and  includes 
the  South  African  plateau  of  4-5500  feel  elevation,  between  the 
Kalahari  desert  and  the  Drakenberg  Mountains. 

a.  Climate 

Here  the  rainfall  diminishes  from  east  to  west.  In  the 
Transvaal  the  mean  annual  rainfall  at  Heidelberg  is  732-9S9  mm.,  at 
Pretoria  635-762  mm.  and  at  Klerksdorp  381-335  mm.  Below  the  high 
veldt  (5-6000  ft)  the  rainfall  is  uncertain.  In  the  middle  veldt 
(4-5000  ft.)  steady  rains  are  rare,  and  tropical  thunderstorms  in- 
crease. Winter,  the  dry  season,  is  shorter  on  the  middle  veldt  than 
on  the  high  veldt.  At  Johannesburg,  May  to  August  are  the  driest 
and  coolest  months,  the  rains  occurring  from  September  or  October 
to  February.  The  daily  range  of  temperature  is  large. 

In  the  Orange  Free  State,  the  mean  annual  rainfall  for 
the  whole  area  is  610  mm.,  but  the  rain  cannot  be  depended  upon. 

The  driest  season  is  from  June  to  September,  the  hottest  December 
to  February,  the  coldest  from  June  to  July.  Bloemfontein  has  a 


-30- 


maximum  temperature  of  38.7°  C.,  a minimum  of  -5.6°  C. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  vegetation  ia  composed  largely  of  short  scattered 
grasses  with  richer  vegetation  in  the  valleys.  In  higher  places 
grow  long  grass,  Euphorbiaceae,  camel-thorn  acacias  ana  mimosas; 
near  mimosa-bordered  crags  are  small  aloes,  stapelias,  cactus-like 
euphorbias,  sycamore,  wood  sorrel,  fern,  mosses  and  lichens.  On 
the  plains  are  red  lilies,  and  lilies  of  other  kinds,  white-thorned 
mimosa  shrub3,  and  a temperate  zone  flora  of  Campanula,  Saponaria, 
Veronica  and  umbellif erous  Euphorbiaceae . In  the  woods  are  blue 
bush,  wild  pomegranate,  beech,  "wild  syringa,  M wild  olives,  karee 
trees,  mohatta  and  marethwa  bushes,  aloes  and  several  kinds  of 
mimosas. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  here  are  the  vervet  (la, 2a, 3a),  hunting  dog 
2b, 3b, c, 4a),  lion  (la,b, 2a, 3b, c) , wild  cat  (3c),  leopard  (la, 3d, 3c), 
lynx,  Burchell's  cat.  Cape  otter,  genet  (la, 3c),  black-3triped 
weazel,  spotted  hyaena  (la, b, 2a, 3c),  rock  badger  (2d, 3b),  gazelle 
(3c),  steinbok  (3d, 3b),  grysbok  (la, 2c, f, 3b) , blaauwbok,  striped 
gnu  (3d, 3b, c, 4b) , blesbok  antelope  (2c, 4a),  springbok,  reedbuck 
(la,b,2c),  klipspringer  (la, 2a, d, 3c) , tsessebe,  black  gnu  (lc,d), 
Burchell's  zebra  (id,  2d,  3b,  4b),  wild  swine  (4a),  great  shrew 
mice,  Rhyzaena  (lc),  ground  porcupine  (la, 2a, 3c),  reed  rats  (lad, 3c, 
4a),  short-tailed  pangolin  (la, 3c),  and  earth-pig  (3c). 

The  birds  which  have  been  seen  here  are  the  crowned 


-31- 


guinea  fowl,  Colius  lsucotis,  South  African  blue-gray  turtle-dove, 
ox-bird,  laughing  dove,  white-eared  bustard,  golden  oriole.  South 
African  3tarling,  weaver  bird,  red-legged  plover,  small  bustard, 
pheasants,  long-tailed  black  and  white  shrikes,  hornbill,  brown 
carrion  hawk3,  red  falcon,  fork-tailed  kite,  wood  hoopoe,  falcons 
of  several  kinds,  sparrow  hawk,  owls,  darters,  several  varieties  of 
crows,  cormorants,  starlings,  thrush,  wag-tail,  reed-sparrow,  wood- 
pecker, sunbird,  bee-eater,  kingfisher  (2  sp.),  lory,  cuckoo,  swal- 
low, red-backed  shrike,  goat- sucker,  hammerhead,  great  Cape  par- 
tridge, guinea-fowl,  sedge-warbler,  social  finch,  fire-finch,  long- 
tailed king-finch,  secretary  bird,  and  goat  chafer. 

Lower  vertebrates  are  frog,  lizard,  chameleon,  three 
kinds  of  land  tortoises,  cobra,  (green,  black,  and  yellowish),  black 
snake,  yellow  cobra-capella  and  Melierax  canorua. 

Arthropoda  present  hers  include  the  locust,  sand  beetle, 
ground  beetle,  leaf  beetle,  many  kinds  of  moths,  spider,  bark  bee- 
tles, large  winged  ants,  rose  beetle,  Longicorn,  cicada  larvae, 
steel-blue  wasps,  and  humble  bee. 

d.  General  Statement 

A large  part  of  the  animals  whose  habits  are  known,  bring 
forth  their  young  in  the  South  African  summer,  or  the  rainy  season. 

Here  as  in  Somaliland  most  of  them  are  crepuscular  or 
nocturnal.  (Table  I). 

5.  Gazaland  and  Mozambique. 

The  last  bu3h-grass  steppe  region  is  that  in  the  provinces 
of  Gazaland  and  Mozamb i que . 


-32- 


a.  Climate 

In  Mozambique  there  are  four  seasons:  December  to  mid- 

January  are  dry,  heavy  rains  fall  from  January  to  April,  there  are 
light  rains  in  May  and  June,  and  the  remaining  months  are  without 
rain.  On  the  whole,  rains  are  greater  along  the  coastal  belt  and 
mountains  about  Lake  Nyasa  than  in  the  intervening  country.  At 
Baroma  there  is  no  rain  from  May  to  October,  751  mm.  fall  between 
November  and  February,  and  only  .5  mm.  in  April.  Mopea  has  a mean 
annual  rainfall  of  784-1405  mm.,  Mozambique  of  838  mm.,  and  the 
Zambesi  basin  889  mm.  At  Mopea  the  mean  temperature  for  the  year 
is  34.9°  C.,  the  mean  daily  range  12.5°  C.,  the  absolute  maximum 
44.4°  C.,  and  the  absolute  minimum  6.11°  C. 

At  Delagoa  Bay  in  Gazaland,  rains  occur  from  September 
to  March  and  April.  North  to  the  Zambesi  they  are  between  November 
and  April.  At  Beira  heavy  rains  occur  between  December  and  Febru- 
ary. The  interior  of  Gazaland  north  of  the  Limpopo  river  to  20° 
South  Latitude  is  almost  rainless.  At  Lourenco  Marques  the  mean 
annual  rainfall  is  717  mm.  The  mean  temperature  there  is  24.1°  C; 
the  absolute  maximum  38°  C.,  and  the  absolute  minimum  9.5°  C. 

b.  Vegetation 

Except  about  the  Zambezi  and  Limpopo  rivers  the  vegetation 
is  poor,  consisting  of  open  bu3h  of  the  thorn  type  and  scant  wiry 
grass, 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  region  are  the  Mozambique  monkey, 

Sykes  guenen,  Peter's  guenon,  great  galago  (3c),  rock  jumping  shrew. 


-33- 


Livingstone 1 s suni,  Robert’ 8 duiker,  Heck's  duiker,  Peter's  oribi 
and  impalla. 

6.  Conclusions  - Steppe. 

Many  of  the  animals  of  the  steppe  are  nocturnal  and 
crepuscular.  The  number  of  species  of  herbivorous  animals  is  lar 
gest  in  this  region.  Often  the  herds  are  mixed. 


-34- 


D.  The  Alpine  Steppe. 

By  the  term  Alpine  Steppe  I have  included  the  regions  of 
the  higher  mountain  peaks  of  Kilimanjaro,  Ruwenzori,  and  Kenya. 

a.  Climate 

In  the  Kenya  forest  region  the  climate  is  healthful  and 
invigorating,  but  during  at  least  half  the  year  there  is  a great 
contrast  between  the  northern  and  southern  slopes.  On  the  latter 
frequent  hailstorms  occur  from  April  to  June;  December  to  Febru- 
ary is  the  dry  season,  March  to  May  the  rainy,  and  June  to  August 
the  misty  season. 

In  the  Kilimanjaro  district  at  Moshi  (3750  ft.)  the  mean 
annual  temperature  is  20.7°  C.  At  Ruwenzori  in  June  rains  fall 
almost  daily. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  vegetation  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Mt.  Ruwenzori  re- 
sembles that  of  the  tropical  evergreen  forest.  Higher,  at  10-11,000 
feet,  heaths,  blackberry  brambles,  bamboo,  ferns  and  lycopodium  are 
characteristic.  Senecios  and  lobelias  are  abundant  between 
11-  and  12,500  feet,  while  about  the  lakes  and  at  elevations  be- 
tween 10-  and  12,000  feet  grow  many  wild  flowers.  On  the  peaks  are 
only  mosaes,  lichens  and  a few  grasses. 

Kenia  at  10,000  feet,  has  a vegetation  consisting  largely 
of  flowers  and  high  grass;  in  the  Meru  forest  are  high  trees,  woody 
creepers  and  dense  undergrowth. 


-35- 


c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  part  are  the  guereza,  baboon,  bats, 
rock-badgers,  genet,  leopard,  Thomson's  gazelle,  bongo  (lb),  dik- 
dik,  Coke's  hartebeest,  oryx,  mountain  reedbuck,  bushbuck,  duiker, 
klipspringer , rhinoceros,  zebra,  bush-pig,  forest  hog  (la,b),  mar- 
mots and  rats. 

Birds  include  turacoes,  tawny  eagle,  parrot,  a few  ducks, 
crows,  hawk,  and  sparrows. 

Invertebrates  are  represented  by  nsuroptera,  diptera  and 

worms. 


. 


-36- 


E . Savanna . 

The  next  large  vegetational  area  la  the  tropical  savanna, 
which  has  a vegetation  of  grass  and  scattered  trees,  with  the  grass 
predominating. 

1.  Boschveld 

First  under  this  area  may  he  considered  the  Boschveld, 
because  it  has  a flora  intermediate  between  the  steppe  and  savanna. 
The  Boschveld  is  the  region  south  of  the  Zambesi  and  extending  into 
Northern  Transvaal,  and  includes  most  of  Southern  Rhodesia. 

a.  Climate 

In  Southern  Rhodesia  there  are  only  two  seasons,  summer 
from  October  to  March,  and  winter  from  April  to  September.  The 
winter  is  dry,  95  percent  of  the  precipitation  occurring  in  summer. 
The  average  annual  rainfall  for  Mashonaland  is  955  mm.,  for  Mata- 
beleland  5S9  mm.  The  mean  annual  temperature  at  Salisbury  is  18°  C. 
at  Gwelo  18.2°  C.,  at  Tuli  21.8°  C.  The  mean  temperature  of  the 
warmest  month  increases  from  21.2°  C.  at  Salisbury  to  27.1°  C.  at 
Tuli.  The  mean  daily  range  of  temperature  is  greater  in  winter 
than  in  summer. 

b.  Vegetation 

On  the  velt  is  long  green  grass,  sometimes  12  feet  high; 
on  rocky  kopjes  are  many  varieties  of  native  trees.  The  dense 
forests  in  places  are  succeeded  by  extensive  grasslands.  Acacias 
and  mopani  trees  are  characteristic  hers. 


-37- 


"I 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  hsre  are  the  lion  (2c,  3b),  serval  (2c,  3c) 
leopard,  wild  dog,  wild  cat,  jackal  (3c),  chita  (la,  2c,  d,  3b, 4a), 
sable  (lb, c, 2a, 3b, 4a),  tsessebe  (2c),  eland  (2b, c),  Cape  duiker 
(la),  inyala  (2c, d),  waterbuck  (lb, c,2e, 3b) , kudu,  puku  (lb, c, 2d, 3b) 
roan  (la, b, 2c, 3a) , elephant,  giraffe  (lb,c,2d),  white  rhinoceros 
(lb, 3b),  steinbok,  quagga  zebra,  hippopotamus,  wild  pig,  and  por- 
cupine . 

The  birds  include  the  ostrich,  guinea-fowl,  partridge, 
dove,  wood-pigeon,  night- jay,  and  locu3t-bird. 

Other  animal  life  includes  the  crocodile  and  locusts. 

d.  General  Statement 

There  is  a fairly  even  distribution  of  species  as  regards 
the  size  of  the  groups.  Most  of  the  young  are  born  in  the  South 
African  summer.  The  larger  percent  are  crepuscular.  (Table  I). 

2.  Sudanese  savanna 

Just  below  the  Sudan  Semi-desert  and  extending  from  Sene- 
gal to  the  upper  Nile  basin  is  a savanna  belt  called  the  Sudanese 
Savanna.  With  that  I shall  consider  an  area  called  Futa-Jallon, 
a tableland  between  the  Niger  and  Guinea,  whose  vegetation  is  sa- 
vanna, due  largely  to  the  destruction  of  the  forests  rather  than 
to  climate  or  soil. 

a.  Climate 


Kayes,  the  warmest  place  in  Senegal,  has  a mean  annual 


. 


I m $3  - I I 


. 


■ 


-38- 


temperature  of  29.4°  C . , a mean  maximum  in  April  and  May  of  36.6°  C., 
and  a minimum  in  January  of  22.3°  C.  There  are  three  seasons,  a 
hot  dry  one  from  March  to  May,  a moist  rainy  one  from  July  to  Sep- 
tember, and  a dry  cool  season  from  November  to  February. 

At  Gambaga  in  northern  Tcgoland,  the  mean  maximum  tem- 
perature is  31.5°  C.,  the  mean  minimum  22.3°  C.  For  Fort  Archam- 
bault  corresponding  figures  are  34.1°  and  20. 4U  C. 

In  the  lower  Eahr-el-Jebel  region,  the  hottest  season  is 
in  March  and  April,  the  coldest  in  September  (the  rainy  season). 

In  the  northern  territories  of  the  Gold  coast,  the  wet 
season  is  from  April  to  October,  with  SC $ of  the  rainfall  from  July 
to  September.  The  annual  rainfall  is  1163  mm. 

In  French  Equatorial  Africa  there  is  a dry  season  of 
4-5  months,  an  intermediate  one  from  March  to  June,  and  a principal 
rainy  season  from  June  15  to  October  15.  At  Ft.  Archambault  the 
annual  rainfall  is  1059  mm.,  at  Ft.  Crampel  1270  mm.,  and  at  Gam- 
baga 1163.3  mm. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  savanna  north  of  the  Gambia  river  consists  of  park- 
like areas  with  luxuriant  grass,  herbs  and  rich  forests  in  river 
valleys,  and  occasional  shady  trees  in  the  open  plains.  About  Lake 
Chad  are  vast  grass  prairies,  with  bush  of  gum-arabic  acacias  and 
tamarinds,  open  grass  spaces  with  palms  on  the  river  banks,  and 
occasional  baobabs,  many  mimosas,  and  mopani  trees.  At  the  mouth 
of  the  river  emptying  into  it  are  dense  growth  of  papyrus.  At 
Irena  the  grass  reaches  a height  of  10  feet.  On  mountain  slopes 


f* 


-39- 


bamboos,  euphorbias,  and  Borassus  palms  are  seen.  The  Bahr-el- 
Ghazal  region  is  a sparsely  wooded  country  with  long  grass  13  feet 
high. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  region  are  the  lesser  white-nosed 
monkey,  Demidoff's  galago,  Senegal  galago  (la,  3c),  great  baboon, 
white-winged  bat,  spotted  hyaena  (la,  3c),  striped  hyaena  (la, 3c), 
lion,  night  hyaena,  white-tailed  mungoose,  rock-badger,  serval  (3c), 
Western  hartebeest  (lb,  c,  2a,  3b),  burrewa,  red-fronted  gazelle, 
Sing- sing  water buck  (la,b,2d,),  oribi  (la),  crowned  duiker,  roan 
(lb,  3a,  c).  Buff on’s  kob  (id),  duiker,  bushbuck  (la,  3c),  grass 
antelope,  pallah,  topi  (id,  2a,  d,  4b),  Gambian  oribi,  equine  ante- 
lope, dwarf  antelope.  Lord  Derby's  eland,  Bohor  reedbuck  (4b), ele- 
phant, white  rhinoceros,  buffalo,  giraffe  (lb,  c),  hog,  wild  boar, 
wart  hog. 

Birds  here  are  spur-winged  geese,  heron,  egret,  ibis, 
stork,  guinea-fowl,  otis,  bee-eaters,  four  kinds  of  fisher-birds, 
green  parrots,  turaccu,  eagle,  darter,  cormorant,  duck,  many  kinds 
of  lapwing,  snipe,  water-hens,  gulls,  sandpipers,  thrush,  hcoded- 
raven,  bearded  vulture,  Balaeniceps  Rex,  humming  birds,  francolin, 
wattle  duck,  golden-crested  crane,  pelican,  marabou,  Nile  geese, 
slipper-beak,  black  and  rose  colored  stork,  hawk,  gray  falcon, 
white-breasted  Abyssinian  raven,  little  carrion  vultures,  widow 
ducks,  rail  and  sparrows. 

Lower  vertebrates  are  the  crocodile  and  a gigantic  puff 
adder.  Among  the  invertebrates  are  mosquitoes,  flies,  gnats,  and 


moths. 


■ 


■ 


-40- 


d.  General  Statement 

Here  as  elsewhere  the  game  usually  assembles  at  the  river 
courses  in  the  dry  season;  the  gazelles  form  an  exception  to  this 
rule.  Peculiar  to  the  Gazelle  and  central  Bahr-el-Jebel  rivers 
is  Balaeniceps  Rex,  a bird  4 feet  high  with  wings  6 feet  across. 

Its  food  is  fish.  It  builds  its  nest  of  ambatch- stalks  close  to 
the  open  water  in  the  rainy  season.  It  is  solitary. 

Buff on' s kob  sometimes  forms  herds  of  several  thousands 
near  the  marshes.  In  the  dry  season  it  keeps  to  the  flats.  The 
topi  or  korrigum  is  also  often  found  in  herds  of  a thousand  or 
more. 

3.  The  Zambesi  basin  and  Unyamwezi. 

The  plateau  about  the  Zambesi  basin  and  north  to  Lake 
Victoria  through  Unyamwezi  has  a vegetation  largely  savanna. 

a.  Climate 

In  northwest  Rhodesia  the  daily  range  of  temperature  in 
the  valleys  is  from  43.2°  to  34.4°  C.,  and  may  be  higher  in  Novem- 
ber. In  the  rainy  season  the  daily  range  is  from  37.8°  to  32.2°  C. 
Rains  occur  from  January  to  March  with  an  average  of  774.7  mm.  a 
year.  The  amount  is  less  in  the  plateau  sections. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  savanna  vegetation  is  composed  largely  of  acacia, 
mimosa,  thin  forests  of  mopani  trees,  euphorbias,  kigelias,  native 


-41- 


mahogany  and  native  teak.  The  river  vegetation  is  often  luxuriant 
and  quite  tropical.  Plants  present  there  are  reeds,  water-plants, 
small  water-lilies,  oonvolvulus,  moshungulu,  sycamores  and  figs. 
About  Victoria  Falls  occur  thickets  of  sare  palms,  long  grass,  fan 
palms  and  baobabs.  Nearby  are  sycamores,  mimosas,  thick  creepers, 
palm  bushes,  ferns  and  moss. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  here  are  Stair's  guenon,  Moloney '3  guenon, 
Chacma  baboon  (id,  3a,  4a),  palm  civet,  black-backed  jackal  (la,  2c, 
3c),  leopard  (la,  3c,  3c),  lion,  hyaena  (spotted)  (la,  3c),  otters 
(la),  bushbuck,  roan,  Rhodesian  yellow-backed  duiker,  impalla, 
water-busk,  tsessebe,  kudu,  sable,  inyala.  Walker's  duiker,  Nyasa 
blue  duiker,  Johnston's  duiker,  Sharpe's  steinbok,  lechwe  (lc,d,2d, 
3c, 4a),  black  lechwe  (lb),  puku  (lc,d,2d,3b) , reedbuck  (lb, 4a), 
striped  gnu  (lc, 2d, 3b, c, 4b) , Livingstone's  suni  (la, b, 3d, 3b) , orbe- 
ki  gazelle,  Zulu  hartebeest,  CraW3hay's  defassa,  elephant,  zebra, 
buffalo,  Johnston's  bush  pig,  hippopotamus  (3c),  giraffe. 

Birds  which  may  be  seen  here  are  the  South  African  poch- 
ard, fish-eagle,  heron,  egrets,  pelicans,  two  kinds  of  geese,  ibis, 
duck,  kingfisher,  three  kinds  of  plover,  francolin,  guinea-fowl, 
scopus,  saddle  storks,  Plectropterus,  spurred  geese,  darter,  cormor- 
ant, bee-catcher,  cuckoo,  bald  buzzard,  silver  heron,  purple  heron, 
spoonbills,  sandpiper,  three  kinds  of  mews,  speckled  black  and 
white  skimmers,  and  marabou. 

The  only  smaller  life  I find  mentioned  are  snakes  and 
butterflies. 


-42- 


d.  General  Statement 

The  hippopotamus  keeps  to  the  middle  of  the  stream  dur- 
ing the  day*  going  to  pasture  at  night.  It  is  very  particular  in 
its  choice,  often  going  8-8  miles  along  the  river-banks  and  has 
sometimes  been  found  ten  or  more  miles  from  the  water.  It  was 
once  common  in  South  Africa  and  is  still  found  in  the  rivers  of 
Natal  and  Kaffraria,  but  not  south  of  the  Limpopo  river  in  central 
South  Africa. 

Larger  herds  seem  less  frequent  here  than  in  the  steppe. 
Many  forms  are  crepuscular,  more  are  nocturnal.  Most  of  those 
whose  habits  are  known  bring  forth  their  young  between  October  and 
December,  or  just  before  the  rainy  season.  (Table  I). 

The  tsessebe  may  assemble  in  herds  of  200  towards  the 
end  of  the  dry  season. 

4.  East  African  Mountain  Region 

The  other  region  belonging  to  the  tropical  savanna  and  in 
some  places  transitional  between  it  and  the  tropical  deciduous 
savanna  forest  is  the  East  African  Mountain  Region,  including  the 
mountain  and  plateau  region  of  British  ana  German  East  Africa,  U- 
ganda,  North-East  Rhodesia,  and  North  Portugese  East  Africa. 

a.  Climate 

In  Uganda  at  Entebbe  the  absolute  maximum  temperature  is 
32.2°  C.,  the  absolute  minimum  12.8°  C.,  and  the  rainfall  is  1501 
mm.  a year.  In  British  East  Africa  at  Machako  the  hottest  month 


■ 


-43- 


has  a mean  maximum  of  24.4°  C.;  the  coldest  a mean  minimum  of  9.4° 

C.  The  highlands  of  Machako  have  a mean  annual  rainfall  of  881.4 
mm.  There  are  generally  two  wet  seasons,  from  November  to  January, 
and  March  to  May.  In  the  region  north  of  Nairobi  and  Kenia  the 
rainfall  amounts  to  1016-1270  mm.  with  a tendency  to  sterility  near 
the  Rift  Valley. 

In  German  East  Africa  at  Tabora  the  mean  maximum  tempera- 
ture is  30.2°  C.,  the  minimum  16.9°  C.  The  annual  rainfall  there 
is  675.6  mm.,  at  Ujiji  830.6  mm.  From  November  to  April  is  the 
rainy  season,  with  but  little  rain  in  January. 

In  Nyasaland  on  the  highlands  the  annual  range  of  temper- 
ature is  from  36°  C.  to  4.4°  C.  At  Blantyre  1422.4  mm.  of  rain 
falls  a year;  in  the  low  plains  the  maximum  temperature  may  be 
46°  C.  before  rains.  The  rains  occur  from  November  to  May;  on  the 
Nyasa-Tanganyika  plateau  the  annual  rainfall  is  1778  mm.,  for  Kar- 
onga  1270  mm. 

b.  Vegetation 

Uganda  is  largely  a savanna  country  with  patches  of  for- 
est. The  vegetation  consists  of  grass  10  feet  high,  mimosas,  mo- 
pani,  kigelias,  euphorbias  and  low  ferns.  The  valley  bottoms  around 
Entebbe  have  luxuriant  forests,  swamps  of  gigantic  papyrus  and  aqua- 
tic plants,  areas  of  dense  yellow  grass  10-20  feet  high,  which  are 
in  some  places  replaced  by  herbaceous  vegetation  and  many  flowers. 
Trees  are  acacia,  mimosa,  euphorbias,  erithryna  and  spathodea. 


Raphia  and  Borassus  palms,  cassia  and  dracaena  overgrown  by  climb- 
ing plants  and  giant  lianas.  Between  Nairobi  and  Entebbe,  in  the 


-44- 

mountainous  country,  ars  forests  of  juniper  and  other  evergreens. 

The  mountains  in  British  East  Africa  are  largely  forest-covered j 
the  rivers  have  a vegetation  of  palms,  thorn  trees,  papyrus,  flow- 
ering creepers,  grass  and  aloes.  Toward  Lake  Tanjanyika  are  grassy 
plains  with  euphorbias,  gum-acacias,  aloetic  plants  and  papyrus, 
while  in  the  valleys  grow  lianas,  creepers,  fern,  moss,  grass,  cane, 

t 

Borassus  palms,  teak,  tamarind  and  owendi. 

c . Animal s 

The  mammals  present  here  are  the  white-tailed  colobus, 

(2o,  4a),  Schmidt's  guenon,  red  crested  guereza,  Ruppell's  guereza, 
Langheld's  baboon,  yellow  baboon,  East  African  baboon,  long-nosed 
jumping  shrew  (4  species),  lion  (lb,  2f),  rock  badger,  leopard, 
hyaena  (la,  3c),  mungooses,  black  leopard,  small-spotted  serval, 
white-tailed  mungoose,  striped  hyaena,  black-backed  jackal  (la,b,3c) 
chita  (la, 3a, b, 4a),  Bohor  reedbuck  (la,b,  3b),  waterbuck  (lb,c,  3b), 
mountain  reedbuck  (lb,  3c),  Buff on's  kob,  bushbuck  (la,  3a,  3c), 
steinbok,  topi  (la,  4b),  roan  (3a-c),  yellow-backed  duiker,  Lich- 
tenstein's hartebeest  (3d),  impalla  (lc,  3d,  3a,  4a),  situtunga  (3c) 
red  antelope,  klipspringer,  defassa  (lb,  c,  3a,  4a),  Uganda  duiker, 
Coke's  hartebeest  (4b),  brindled  gnu  (lc,  3d,  3b, c,  4b),  eland, 
Thomas'  dikdik,  Kirk's  dikdik,  pigmy  antelope,  Thomson's  gazelle, 
oryx,  Grant's  gazelle  (lc,d,  2a, d,  4b),  gerenuk,  Cotton's  oribi, 
lesser  kudu  (ia,b,  3b),  Jackson  hartebeest,  suni,  hippopotamus 
(lb,c,  3c,  4a),  buffalo  (lc,d,  3a),  wart-hog  (3c),  elephant,  moun- 
tain zebra  (id),  black  rhinoceros  (la,b,  3b),  giraffe  (lc),  Gravy's  j 

zebra.  Grant's  zebra,  forest  hog,  flying  squirrel,  and  Cape  hare 

1 


■ 


A . 


-45- 


(2a, d). 

The  birds  of  this  region  are  the  swallow,  guinea  fowl, 
dove,  Egyptian  geese,  sandpipers,  darter,  heron,  blue  kingfisher, 
grouse,  bustard,  roller,  bee-eater,  heron,  avocet.  Marabou  storks, 
finch-like  birds,  Colymbu3  capensis,  thicknees,  Balearica  regulorum, 
jacana,  Hemipodes,  spotted  barn  owl,  night  jars,  parrots,  several 
kinds  of  pigeons,  large  plantain  eater,  glossy  ibis,  vulturine 
guinea  fowl,  sand  grouse,  pelican  and  sea-eagle. 

Other  vertebrates  are  the  crocodile,  lizard,  and  chamel- 


eon. 


ticks. 


Invertebrates  are  the  tsetse  fly,  scorpion,  spider,  and 


d.  General  Statement 


Manifestations  of  annual  rhythm  appear  in  the  reactions 
of  the  black  rhinoceros  which  is  diurnal  only  in  the  wet  season, 
and  of  the  rock-badger  which  migrates  from  the  mountains  (its  home 
in  the  dry  season)  to  the  more  arid  parts  in  the  wet. 

The  impalla  is  in  small  parties  in  the  summer;  in  the 
winter  the  males  and  females  herd  together. 

5.  Conclusions.  Savanna.  j 

< 

Several  antelopes  of  this  region  3how  an  annual  rhythmic  j 
response  to  the  dry  season  by  assembling  at  such  times  in  large 
herds  along  the  river  courses.  The  carnivores  which  prey  on  them 
also  collect  here  . When  the  rains  come  the  large  herds  often  breaks 
up  and  scatter  in  small  parties  over  the  plain. 


1 


-46- 

F.  Deoiduoua  Savanna- Forest . 

1.  Drakenberg 

I have  used  the  term  deciduous  savanna-f orest s for  the 
park-like  regions  intermediate  between  the  savanna  and  dense  trop- 
ical forests.  These  are  of  two  kinds:  temperate  and  tropical. 

Illustrating  the  first  type  are  the  Drakenberg  mountains  and  Kaf- 
f raria. 

a.  Climate 

The  climate  for  this  region  i3  largely  temperate.  At 
Port  St.  Johns  the  absolute  maximum  temperature  is  40°  C.  in  October 
the  lowest  temperature  4.4°  C.  At  Umtata  the  highest  recorded  tem- 
perature is  43. 4U  in  November,  the  lowest  -6.1°  C.  As  a whole  for 
Kaff raria  the  mean  for  the  hottest  month  is  between  22.5°  C.  in 
the  low  districts,  and  16.1°  C.  in  the  higher  parts;  the  mean  for 
the  coldest  month  is  8.3°  C.  At  Bremerdorp  in  Swaziland  (2,100  ft.) 
the  annual  rainfall  is  957.6  mm.,  at  Harrismith  (Orange  Free  State) 
769  mm. 

At  Durban  on  the  coa3t  of  Natal,  the  mean  annual  temper- 
ature is  21.5°  C.,  an  increase  over  the  cities  to  the  south.  The 
absolute  maximum  is  43.7°  C;  the  absolute  minimum  5.4°  C.;  June  to 

I 

August  are  the  coldest  months,  and  November  to  March  the  hot  ones. 

The  mean  annual  rainfall  i3  1041  mm.  Howick  (3,400  ft.)  has  an  ab- 
solute maximum  of  38.9°  C.,  a minimum  of  -6.1°.  The  mean  annual 
rainfall  is  745  mm.;  that  for  Natal  as  a whole  is  853  mm. 

In  South-East  Africa  King  William's  Town  has  an  absolute 
minimum  of  2.2°  and  a mean  temperature  for  the  coldest  month  of 


-47- 


13.2°  C.  The  absolute  maximum  for  Lovedale  was  45.3°  C.  in  Decem- 
ber. The  average  rainfall  for  the  whole  region  is  660  ran.  ; Decem- 
ber to  March  are  the  rainiest  months,  July  the  driest.  At  Port  St. 
Johns  rain  falls  in  all  months, but  May  to  August  are  the  driest. 

The  annual  and  monthly  rainfall  are  both  quite  variable. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  vegetation  between  Grahamstown  and  Cradock  consists 
of  low  bushes,  chiefly  lard-trees,  on  detached  hills  of  the  high 
tableland,  and  a profusion  of  acacias,  hedgethorns  and  other  mimo- 
sas and  weeping  willows  in  the  valleys. 

About  Port  Elizabeth  grow  figs,  marigolds,  trusses,  rush- 
es, dwarf  shrub,  and  euphorbias;  on  the  downs,  heaths,  reeds,  lil- 
ies, gladioli , and  mosses  are  abundant;  near  lagoons  are  aloes, 
marigolds,  ranunculuses,  and  a fleshy  kind  of  convolvulus.  On  the 
whole  there  is  a luxuriant  growth  of  tropical  shrubs,  ferns,  and 
creepers  wherever  there  is  moisture. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  part  are  the  Cape  vervet  (la,c,  2a, 
d,  3a),  Maholi  galago,  Great  galago  (3c),  Samango  guenon,  Chacma 
baboon  (id,  2a,  d,  3a,  4a),  (Golden)  mole,  gray  wild  cat  (3c),  black 
spotted  genet  (la,  2c,  3c),  large  gray  mungoose  (la,  3c),  caracal 
(2c,  3c)  side-striped  jackal  (la,  2b, c,  3c),  African  pole-cat  (la, 
3c),  chita  (la,b,  3a, c),  otter,  weazel,  banded  mungoose,  brown 
hyaena,  striped  hyaena,  fox,  spotted  hyaena  (la,  2c,  3c),  lion 


. 

• * 

. 


. 


. 


i * , , • 

, . 


' . , , . , 

■ , , • • : ' 

, , , , . ' , •'  ' 

. 


-48- 


(la,b,  2a,  3b, c),  leopard  (la,  2c, d,  3c),  gazelle,  inyala  (la,b, 

2c,  3c),  tse8sebe,  oribi  (la,b,  2d),  gray  reedbuck  (lb,c,  2d,  3c, 

4a),  Cape  duiker  (la),  klipspringer , mountain  reedbuck  (la,b,  3c), 
rooyebuck  gazelle  (lb,  3c),  red  duiker  (la,  2d,  3b, c),  blue  duiker 
(3b),.  steinbok  (la,  2a,  d,  3a),  bushbuck  (la,  2a,  d,  3c),  kudu  (2d, 

4a),  roan  (lb,  2a),  hyrax,  sable  (lc,  2c),  wart-hog  (lb,  2d,  3b,  c, 
4a),  white  rhinoceros,  bushvark  (lb,c,  2d,  3a, c),  blackvark,  buf- 
falo (id,  2a, d,  3b, c,  4a),  elephant  (id,  3b, c,  4a),  hare  (2a),  jer- 
boa, ground  squirrels,  porcupine  (la,  2a, d,  3c),  cane  rats  (2c,d, 

3c,  4a),  jumping  mice,  rabbit,  gigantic  field  mouse,  short-tailed 
armadillo  and  earth-pig. 

Birds  present  here  are  several  kinds  of  bustard,  guinea 
fowl,  partridges,  sand  grouse,  snipe,  plover,  wild  duck,  wild  geese, 
divers,  long- tailed  sun  bird,  hawk,  shrike,  reed  warbler,  red  and 
yellow  finches  and  weaver-birds. 

Lower  vertebrates  are  the  giant  lizard,  tortoise,  puff- 
adders,  cobras,  horned  vipers,  coral  snakes,  and  green  water  snakes. 

Scorpions,  spiders,  beetles  and  bees  are  among  the  in- 
vertebrates here. 

d.  General  Statement 

The  elephants  frequent  the  mountains  in  the  long  droughts, 
but  are  in  the  drier  open  country  in  the  wet  season.  The  bush-pig 
which  is  diurnal  in  the  wet  season  is  nocturnal  at  other  times. 

The  smaller  groups  predominate  here,  and  most  of  the  ani- j 
mals  a,re  nocturnal.  A large  number  of  the  young  are  born  in  the 
South  African  summer,  between  October  and  March.  (Table  I). 

| 


m3S^i 


-49- 


2.  Abyssinian  Highlands. 


The  highlands  of  Abyssinia  illustrate  the  tropical  type 
of  savanna-forest. 

a.  Climate 


The  climate  of  this  region  is  typically  tropical,  except 
as  modified  by  the  higher  peaks.  At  Harar  (6,000  feet),  the  tem- 
perature extremes  for  the  year  are  17.2  and  27.8°  C.  At  Ankober 
(6,200  feet)  the  mean  maximum  temperature  is  15.9°,  the  mean  mini- 
mum 10°  C.  At  Addis  Abbaba  (8,000  feet)  the  mean  temperature  for 
the  year  is  15.7°,  the  mean  minimum  8.9°  C.  and  the  mean  monthly 
range  -2°  C.  On  the  plateau  the  principal  rainy  season  is  from 

July  to  October,  at  Kaffa  and  Shoa  from  June  to  mid-September;  the 

/ 

heaviest  rains  fall  in  July  and  August.  Light  rains  occur  in  March, 
April  and  half  of  May.  The  annual  rainfall  at  Addis  Abbaba  is 
1183  mm.  , at  Gondar  1010  ram. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  plateaus  are  generally  treeless,  but  on  the  slopes 
and  in  the  gorges  are  thorn  bush  and  trees.  The  rainfall  and  ele- 
vation may  produce  richer  vegetation  in  other  parts. 

At  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet,  there  are  mountain  weeds, 
dracenas  and  euphorbias.  The  vegetation  on  the  seaward  side  of  the; 
mountain  consists  of  numerous  succulents,  giant  Kolkwal  and  four 
smaller  species,  Stapelia,s,  Caraib,  Sanseviera,  Lassav  (a  Capparid). 
On  the  other  side  of  the  mountains  only  the  lower  part  of  the  val- 
leys  has  a luxuriant  vegetation.  Acacias  grow  close  together,  and 


, 


. 

. 


. 


. 


■ 

. 

r • 

. 


. 


, 


• 

-50- 


gigantic  clumps  of  green  Salvadora  are  characteristic  here.  On 
the  slopes  are  millions  of  euphorbiae  and  dracaenae  with  beard 
moss  on  the  branches,  an  abundance  of  sulphur-colored  lichens  on 
rocks,  and  beds  of  moss.  Wild  olive  trees,  Abyssinian  aloe,  tabbes 
grass  and  acacias  are  also  abundant. 

i 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  area  are  Ruppell's  guereza  (lc),  gri- 
vet,  Boutourlini ' s guenon,  Dusky  gelada  (3a),  Thoth  baboon,  Gelada 
baboon  (id),  Arabian  baboon  (id),  doguera  baboon  (id),  zebra  mun- 
goose,  variegated  jackal,  cuberow,  Tora  hartebeest,  Abyssinian 
oribi,  Bohor  reedbuck,  Abyssinian  ibex,  Erlanger’s  dikdik,  Aelian's 
wart-hog  (lb,  3c),  and  buffalo. 

The  desert  cricket  is  the  only  small  form  I find  men- 
tioned. 


d.  General  Statement 


Baboons  as  a whole  are  very  gregarious  here.  The  gelada 
ranges  in  large  troops  to  a height  of  7-8000  feet.  The  Arabian 
baboon  forms  parties  of  200,  while  the  doguera  baboon  may  have  as 
many  as  1-2000  in  a group. 


3.  Light  Forests  and  Parks  of  Tropical  Africa 

The  tropical  type  of  deciduous  savanna- forest  includes 
also  the  light  forests  and  parks  of  tropical  Africa,  surrounding 
the  equatorial  evergreen  forests,  and  occurs  on  the  hinterland  of 
Upper  Guinea,  on  the  water  sheds  of  the  Shari,  Bahr-el-Ghazal  and 


. . 

. 


. 


. 


. 


, 

. 

, - 

• 

. 

, • . 


. 


, 


-51- 


Congo  "basins  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Kasai  and  Lualaba  rivers. 

a.  Climate 

To  go  land  has  two  well-marked  rainy  seasons,  one  from 
April  to  July,  the  other  from  September  to  December;  these  are 
separated  by  dry  seasons.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  coast 
is  26°  C,  of  the  interior  23°  C.  At  Bismarkburg  the  mean  tempera- 
ture is  24.9°  C.  ; the  mean  maximum  29.6°  and  the  mean  minimum  21. 5°C, 
The  rainfall  on  the  coast  is  698  mm.  yearly;  inland  it  is  1193- 
1498  mm. 

At  Lokoja  in  Worth  Nigeria,  the  highest  temperature  is 
38.8°  C.  in  February;  the  lowest  10°  C.  in  November.  At  Zungeru 
the  highest  temperature  is  41.6°  C.  in  March,  the  lowest  12.8°  C. 
in  November.  The  rainy  season  is  from  April  to  October,  with  July 
to  September  the  wettest  months. 

On  the  lower  Congo  near  the  mouth  there  are  two  rainy 
seasons,  one  from  October  to  May,  the  other  from  June  to  September. 

At  Luluabourg,  there  is  a large  daily  range  of  temperature,  but  a 
uniform  monthly  mean.  The  mean  maximum  temperature  is  32.2°  C.  in 
October;  the  mean  minimum  20.6°  C.  The  annual  rainfall  here  is 
1 541  mm. 

b.  Vegetation 

In  the  western  parts  of  this  region  are  plains  covered 
with  turf  and  various  herbs,  patches  of  lichens  and  Anona  trees. 

The  plants  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  and  tributary  regions  are  water- 
lilies,  red  bindweed,  tall  tamarinds,  euphorbias,  potamogeton,  tra- 
pa,  yellow  ottelia,  ferns,  Stephegyne,  vallisneria  (forming  a sward) J 


-52- 


climbing  passion  flower,  acacia,  candelabra-euphorbiae  and  kigeleae. 

On  the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Congo  occur  papyrus,  reeds,  cane, 
acacias,  eschinomenae , sycamore,  teak,  mvule  and  meofu.  The  Congo 
region  below  Stanley  Falls  belongs  to  this  area.  Characteristic 
there  are  guinea  palm,  plantains,  tall  grass,  orchid,  dwarf  palm, 
pandanus,  oil  palms,  mangrove  trees,  dragon  trees,  Camoensia  and 
cannas. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  region  are  the  Patas  guenon  (id),  Dia- 
dem guenon,  rump-spotted  guenon,  green  monkey,  Cape  vervet,  Guinea 
baboon,  Senegal  galago,  genet  (la,  3c),  civet,  zebra  ichneumon, 
African  wild  cat  (3c),  lynx,  serval  (3c),  caracal,  leopard  (la,  3c), 
red  buffalo  ( la,b,  3b,  4a),  Western  hartebeest,  white-eared  kob  (id), 
red- flanked  duiker,  situtunga  (la,  3c,  4a),  gemsbok,  Hegoleh  ante- 
lope, waterbuck,  Vaughan’s  kob,  eland,  tsessebe  (lb,  2d),  banded 
duiker,  harnessed  antelope,  bushbuck,  wild  hog,  hippopotamus  (lb,c, 
3c),  elephant,  wart  hog  (3b,c,  4a),  giraffe  (lb,c),  rock-rabbit  (3b),  I 
tan  squirrel  and  ant-bear. 


rail,  sparrow,  kingfisher,  white  egret,  spur-winged  geese,  vulture, 
barbet,  African  woodpecker,  Egyptian  geese,  blue  roller,  hornbill, 
p lan tain-eater,  golden  cuckoo,  bulbul,  pigeon,  parrots,  love-birds, 
wax-bills,  pelican,  marsh  bird,  bee-eater,  Balaeniceps  Rex,  fishing 
eagles,  giant  heron,  pratincole  and  fly-catcher. 

The  giant  python  and  other  snakes,  lizard  and  crocodile 
are  the  chief  lower  forms  here. 


Birds  present  here  are  the  saddle-billed  stork,  sand-piper, 


-53- 


Sand-flies  and  swallow-tailed  butterflies  are  among  the 

insects. 


d.  General  Statement 


The  wart-hog  is  crepuscular  and  nocturnal  in  hot  weather. 


4.  Conclusions  - Deciduous  Savanna-Forest 

Significant  figures  show  that  most  animals  are  in  small 
herds  of  ten  or  less. 

They  are  largely  nocturnal  and  go  about  in  pure  herds. 


1 


-54- 


G.  The  Temperate  Evergreen  Forest. 

1.  Medi terranean  Africa. 

The  next  large  division  is  that  of  the  temperate  ever- 
green forest,  with  chiefly  winter  rains.  The  most  northern  of  these 
districts  is  what  is  termed  Mediterranean  Africa,  that  part  between 
the  Atlas  ranges  and  the  sea. 


a.  Climate 

In  the  Sahel  or  maritime  zone  of  Algeria,  the  hot  season 
lasts  from  June  to  August  with  a mean  of  26°  C.  The  rains  are  win- 
ter rains  occurring  between  September  and  May.  At  Algiers  the  mean 
maximum  temperature  is  22.7°  C.  ; the  mean  minimum  15.3°  C.  At  Mog- 
ador  in  Morocco,  the  temperature  is  seldom  above  25°  C.  due  to  the 
North-east  trades;  the  annual  rainfall  there  is  406  mm.  At  Fez 
the  mean  summer  temperature  ranges  between  15-16°  C.  The  rains  in 
Morocco  are  from  September  to  March;  Tangier  has  312  mm.  a year. 

b.  Vegetation 


The  vegetation  here  formed  originally  an  open  woodland 
and  shrubland  of  hard- leaved  evergreens  and  wiry  grass.  In  the  Tell 
valley  were  forests  of  Aleppo  pines,  cork  oaks,  white  oaks,  and 
olive  clumps.  The  undergrowth  consisted  of  numerous  evergreen  shrubs 

c . An  ima  Is 


The  mammals  of  this  region  are  the  Barbary  macaque  (id), 
lion,  panther,  bear,  jackal,  hyaena  (la,  3c),  wild  boar  (lb,  3c), 


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-55- 


antelopes,  gazelle,  mouflon,  red  deer,  fallow  deer,  and  European 
squirrel  ( la,  3a) . 

Birds  present  here  include  the  Spanish  sparrow,  eagle, 
red  phalarope,  falcon,  vulture,  thrush,  swallow,  starling,  pigeon, 
partridges,  quail,  heron,  pelican,  swan,  duck,  grebe,  and  stork. 

Other  animal  life  there  is  the  lizard,  tortoise,  chamel- 
eon, leech,  and  locust. 

d.  General  Statement 

The  wild  hoar  goes  to  the  hills  in  the  hot  weather,  re- 
maining till  September. 

2.  South  Cape  of  South  Africa. 

The  other  area  of  temperate  evergreen  forest  is  that  on 
the  South  Cape  of  South  Africa,  and  a strip  called  Knysna  forest 
extending  fromMossel  Bay  to  Algoa  Bay. 

a.  Climate 

This  coastal  strip  is  a region  of  winter  rains  and  a hot 
dry  summer.  The  absolute  maximum  temperature  ranges  between  40  and 
44°  C.  ; the  absolute  minimum  between  3.9°  and  -3.9°  C.  The  mean 
annual  rainfall  at  Port  Elizabeth  is  502  mm.  , at  Mossel  Bay  424  mm.  , 
and  at  Knysna  711  mm. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  predominating  type  of  vegetation  here  is  heaths,  of 

which  there  are  over  400  species.  Other  plants  include  various 




. 


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-56- 

Pro  teaceae  , rhenoster,  arum,  iris,  geranium,  leucadendron  and  ar- 
genteum. 

c.  Animals 

The  hontehok  (lh,c,  2c,  4a),  elephant,  and  golden  mole 
are  the  only  animals  I find  for  this  area. 


-57- 


H.  Tropical  Evergreen  Forest. 


The  last  large  division  consists  of  the  tropical  ever- 
green forests  of  the  Congo  River  basin,  and  the  West  African  coast 
from  Sierra  Leone  to  the  mouth  of  the  Congo.  These  are  separated 
by  a drier  tract  in  To  go  land. 

1.  Guinea  Coast. 

a.  Climate 


The  climate  of  the  Guinea  Coast  is  chiefly  characterized 
by  periods  of  greater  and  lesser  rain.  In  Liberia  the  heavy  rains 
fall  between  April  and  July,  the  lesser  rains  from  July  to  Septem- 
ber, heavy  ones  again  from  September  to  mid-November,  then  there  is 
a dry  period  to  March. 

The  Ivory  Coast  has  four  seasons;  a dry  one  November  15 
to  March  15;  lesser  rain  to  May  15;  lesser  rain  to  July  15,  and 
heavier  rain  to  November  15. 

Sierra  Leone  has  no  cold  weather;  any  extremes  occur  dur- 
ing the  rainy  season.  The  total  rainfall  here  in  1900  was  4445  mm. 
Freetown  has  an  average  mean  temperature  of  27.2°  C.  ; the  highest 
shade  temperature  is  35-37.1°  C.  in  February  and  March,  the  lowest 
19.1  - 19.4°  C.  in  January.  Grand  Bassara  on  the  Ivory  Coast  has  a 
mean  temperature  of  26.7°  C. , and  an  average  of  1930-2413  mm.  of 
rain  a year. 


b.  Vegetation 


The  vegetation  of  the  Guinea  Coast  is  that  of  a tropical 


. 

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-58- 


rain  forest  and  consists  of  the  water  tree,  Guinea  pepper  tree, 
silk-cotton  tree,  trees  of  the  orders  Connaraceae  and  Papilionaceae, 
Rhynhosea,  Lonchocarpus , Berlinea  acuminata,  Funumia  elastica, 
palms  and  figs.  Other  forms  belong  to  the  Zingeberaceae , Maranta- 
ceae,  arum,  rushes,  bamboos,  ferns,  lycopodiums,  water-lilies,  Hib- 
iscus, Combretum,  Dissotis,  Smeathmannia,  pawpaw,  mussaende,  or- 
chids, Dracaena,  and  calamus. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  here  include  a great  many  primates  as  well  as 
other  forms.  The  former  include  Bosnian's  potto  (3c),  king  or  bay 
monkey,  crested  colob,  black  colob,  Ursine  colob,  (la),  white- 
thighed colob,  sooty  mangabey  ( and  four  other  species),  chimpanzee, 
patas  guenon,  others  belonging  to  the  Genus  Cercopithecus  are  hoch- 
eur  monkey,  and  the  following  guenons:  lesser  white-nosed,  Butti- 

kofer’s,  Martin’ 3,  Ludio,  Stampfli’s,  red-eared,  moustached,  Syke's, 
Campbell's  (id),  bearded,  Liana,  Palatine,  and  green  monkey  (la,b).  j 

i 

Lemur  and  baboons  include  awantibo  (3c),  Allen’s  galago  (3c),  Demi- 
doff’s  galago  (3c),  mandrill  (id),  and  An ub is  baboon. 

Fruit-eating  bats  are  of  the  genera  Megaloglossus,  Hyp- 
signathus,  Roussettus,  Epomophorus  (4  species).  Insect-eating  bats 
are  horseshoe-bat,  false  vampire,  leaf-nosed  bat,  Nycteris  hispida 
and  N.  grandis,  Vespertilio  stampflii  and  V.  nanus,  Pipistrellus 
minutus  and  P.  tenuipinnis,  and  Kerivoula  africana. 

Other  mammals  include  the  shrews  (2  sp.),  leopard,  small 

I 

spotted  serval,  linsang,  palm  civet  (3c),  genet  (la,  3c),  slender 
mungoose  and  ichneumon,  clawless  otter,  spotted-necked  otter, 


59- 


African  tiger  cat,  cusimanse,  Gambian  mungoose,  the  following  duikers 
Cephalophus:  yellow-backed,  Jentink’s,  bay,  black-faced,  *hite- 

bellied,  Ogilby’s,  Brook’s,  Peter’s,  banded,  Maxwell's,  black;  dusky 
kob,  tree  hyrax  (3c),  water  chevotrain  (3c),  bongo,  harnessed  ante- 
lope (3c),  royal  antelope  (la),  West  African  hartebeest,  elephant, 
pigny  hippopotamus,  red  river-hog,  red  buffalo,  Senegalese  buffalo, 
fulgent  flying  squirrel,  six  species  of  true  squirrel,  Stanger’s 
squirrel,  pigmy  flying  squirrel,  ground  squirrel,  pigmy  squirrel, 
dormice,  Ghueti,  true  mice:-  brown  rat,  common  black  rat,  Alexan- 
drine rat,  Mus  musculo  ides,  Barbary  mouse,  -pouched  rat,  porcupine, 
tufted- tailed  porcupine,  ground  pig,  armadillo,  long- tailed  pango- 
lin, and  phatagin. 

Birds  here  are  Agelestes  guinea  fowl,  Liberian  glareole, 
jacana,  plover,  flamingo,  geese,  ibis,  heron,  eagle,  white-and-black 
fishing  vulture,  hawk,  plantain  eater,  gray  parrot,  owl,  roller, 
kingfisher,  and  hornbill. 

Lower  vertebrates  include  crocodiles  of  three  types,  puff- 
adders,  cobras,  pythons,  geckos,  skink,  red  and  blue  agamas,  moni- 
tor lizard,  turtles,  and  three  kinds  of  true  frogs. 

Invertebrates  include  among  the  Crustacea, -crabs , cray- 
fish, and  hemit  crabs,  among  the  spiders, -My galomorph,  Nephila, 
Aranaethra,  Heteropoda,  and  also  centipedes,  Scolopendra,  and  Geo- 
philus.  In  the  termite  hills  may  be  found  a blind  lizard,  blind 
amphibians  ( Geo trypetes) , large  earthworms,  and  beetles.  Other 
insects  are  cockroaches,  grasshoppers,  crickets,  mantis,  ordinary 
butterflies  and  beetles,  and  flies,  bees,  wasps,  and  ants. 


-60- 


d.  General  Statement 

Liberia  boasts  the  largest  scorpion  in  the  world,  6 l/2 
inches  long.  Insects  are  numerous  and  in  some  cases  larger  than 
the  same  species  in  other  localities.  The  termites  take  their 
nuptial  flights  in  November  and  December. 

2.  Congo  Basin. 

a.  Climate 

The  Congo  basin  has  a climate  similar  to  that  of  the 
Guinea  Coast.  In  equatorial  parts  rains  occur  almost  daily.  At 
Bolobo,  (on  the  Congo),  the  mean  monthly  maximum  temperature  ranges 
from  28.8°  to  31.7°  C.  ; the  minimum  21.1°  - 23°  C.  In  Equateur 
district  around  Coquilhatville,  the  absolute  maximum  temperature 
is  about  34.5°  C.  early  in  April  and  March,  and  the  absolute  mini- 
mum about  17.5°  C.  in  July.  The  daily  range  may  be  large,  but  the 
monthly  means  do  not  vary  much.  The  rainfall  increases  inland; 
at  No uve lie -An vers  it  is  1651  ram. , at  Ireba  1827  mm. , and  at  Libre- 
ville 2286  mm.  yearly. 

b.  Vegetation 

The  tropical  rain  forest  is  a maze  of  creepers,  shrubs, 
and  large  trees,  whose  broad  branches  are  so  closely  interlaced 
that  they  shut  out  the  daylight.  The  undergrowth  often  reaches  a 
height  of  20  feet.  The  vegetation  of  the  Congo  is  quite  varied, 
and  includes  the  umbrella  tree,  dragon  tree,  strychnine  tree,  anona,| 
copal,  flowering  combretum,  bombax,  dwarf  bamboos,  creepers, 


, 


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. 

' 


, 


. . 


. 

. 


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. 

. 


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-61- 


i! 

hymenocardiae , blue  gladiolas,  ground  orchids,  amaryllides,  parin- 
arium,  alcomeae,  and  rotang  lianas. 

In  the  Cameroon  region  grow  lianas,  ferns,  epiphytes, 
rotang  and  raphia  palms,  Phrynium,  Maranthen,  elk-hom  fern,  Angre- 
cum,  Kickxias,  Peki  tree,  fungi,  monodoras,  albizzia,  and  tree 
ferns.  Near  the  coast  are  also  afromomum  and  macrolobium.  On  the 
Congo  tributaries  are  Sterculiae,  Boswelliae,  Caesalpineae , fig 
trees,  Artocarpeae,  Euphorbiaceae , Rubiaceae;  plants  of  the  sec- 
ond and  third  rank  are  large-leaved  figs,  Papilionaceae  and  Rubia- 
ceae; shrubs  include  Oncoba,  Phyl lan thus,  Celastrus,  Acacia  atax- 
acantha;  creepers  are  modecca,  Cissus,  Coccinea,  prickly  smilax, 
Dioscoreae  andHelneae.  Other  plants  are  ferns  12  feet  high,  amoraa 
and  costus  jungles,  elephant-ear  ferns  50  feet  in  height,  Angraeca, 
Usneae,  twining  pepper,  and  moss.  Still  other  trees  are  the  Tre- 
culia,  muscat  nut,  West  African  cam-wood,  and  mulberry. 

c.  Animals 

The  mammals  of  this  region  are  the  white-necked  monkey, 
white-thighed  colob,  small  gray  monkey,  black  colob,  Ursine  colob, 
Gorilla  (3a),  bald  chimpanzee,  common  chimpanzee  (lb,  4a),  and 
many  monkeys  of  the  genus  Cercopithecus:  malbrouck,  talapoin, 

green,  mona,  Erxleben's,  black-fo tted,  De  Brazza's,  - black  manga- 
bey,  mandrill  (id),  large  baboon,  lemur  (3c),  Allen's  galago  (3c), 
sphynx,  baboon,  pale-colored  galago,  Demidoff's  galago,  leopard, 
lion,  striped  hyaena,  black-backed  jackal  (la),  civet  cat,  African 
tiger  cat,  bush  antelope,  Bongo  (la,b,  3a, b),  waterbuck,  black- 
heeled  antelope,  little  tufted  antelope,  okapi  (la,  2b,  3c), 


, 

. 


, 


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. . 


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-62- 


bangana,  many  duikers:  yellow-backed,  Ituri  yellow-backed,  Ituri 

red,  Alexander’s,  Weyn’s,  Leopold’s,  chestnut;  Gosling’s  oribi, 
Bates'  pigmy  antelope,  elephant,  red  buffalo  (lb,  3b,  4a),  hippo- 
potamus, forest  hog,  coney,  squirrel,  flying  squirrel,  rats,  shrew 
mice,  and  porcupines. 

Birds  present  here  are  the  Marabou  stork,  Balearic  crane, 
flamingo,  spur-winged  goose,  wild  duck,  divers,  kingfisher,  egret, 
glossy  ibis,  snipe,  pelican,  stork,  whydah,  green  pigeon,  plantain 
eater,  Gypohierax  vulture,  and  green  parrot. 

Reptiles  here  are  python,  green  viper,  puff-adder,  and 
monitor.  Insects  include  myriapedes,  beetle,  "hot-water"  ant,  ter- 
mite, and  mantis. 

d.  General  Statement 

Of  the  primates  the  lemurs  are  entirely  noctornal  and 
arboreal.  Most  of  the  monkeys  are  also  arboreal,  but  the  gorilla, 
chimpanzee,  and  baboons  are  largely  terrestrial. 

The  python  is  fond  of  water,  and  will  lie  for  hours  with 
only  his  head  or  nostrils  exposed.  Usually  he  gorges  and  fasts 
alternately,  and  has  been  known  to  go  for  eighteen  months  without 


food. 


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-63- 

III.  Summary  and  General  Conclusions 

1.  Antelopes  while  most  abundant  in  the  semi-desert,  steppe,  and 
savanna  are  present  in  all  regions,  and  in  any  part  form  at 
least  1/8  of  the  large  animals  there. 

2.  The  larger  herds  are  found  in  the  semi-desert,  steppe,  and  sa- 
vanna. The  limiting  factors  in  the  other  regions  are  probably 
food  supply  in  the  arid  parts,  and  density  of  vegetation  in  the 
forests.  The  game  animals  of  the  forest  go  in  1-2’ s to  10* s. 

3.  Antelopes  are  sometimes  in  mixed  herds  in  the  semi-desert, 
steppe,  and  savanna.  Often  the  old  males  are  driven  from  the 
herds  of  their  own  species;  they  then  join  a herd  of  different 
animals,  become  solitary,  or  form  small  parties. 

4.  Generally  large  herds  are  diurnal  and  crepuscular;  small  are 
nocturnal. 

5.  In  the  steppe  and  savanna  animals  display  an  annual  rhythm  by 
alternately  congregating  and  scattering  about  the  water  supplies 
in  accord  with  the  dry  and  wet  seasons. 

6.  Animals  which  by  their  migrations  show  an  annual  rhythmic  re- 
sponse are  the  kudu,  eland,  springbok,  wildebeest,  Nubian  ibex, 
Buffon’s  kob,  elephant,  and  wild  boar. 

7.  The  young  of  herbivorous  animals  are  generally  born  in  the 
rainy  season,  those  of  the  carnivores  in  the  dry. 

8.  No  carnivores  are  independent  of  water  to  the  extent  that  herbi- 
vores are ; they  are  therefore  few  in  the  arid  parts.  The  in- 
crease of  small  carnivores  with  wooded  conditions  seems  due  to 
the  increase  of  small  life,  and  the  presence  of  water. 


tt  I fit  M ‘ . J. 


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-64- 

9.  Carnivores  usually  go  in  small  groups  and  are  nocturnal. 

10.  There  are  some  animals  present  in  three  or  more  of  the  large 
regions,  which  suggest  by  such  a distribution  that  they  are  less 
dependent  than  the  others  on  vegetation  and  climate.  Such  are 
the  springbuck,  duikerbok,  bushbuck,  and  giraffe.  Others  wide- 
ly distributed  are  usually  in  well-watered  local  regions;  these 
are  the  hunting  dog,  lion,  reedbuck,  impalla,  kudu,  waterbuck, 
and  elephant. 

11.  The  pig  and  its  nearly  related  forms  seem  to  be  forest,  in  one 
case  bush,  animals.  All  but  the  wart-hog  frequent  forests,  and 
it  is  crepuscular  and  nocturnal  in  hot  weather.  The  scarcity 
or  absence  of  sweat-glands  is  probably  the  determining  factor 
here. 

12.  Monkeys  are  present  in  all  parts  except  the  extreme  desert,  but 
are  comparatively  rare  except  in  the  tropical  evergreen  forests. 
The  number  of  species  there  equals  the  sum  of  those  present  in 
all  the  other  regions. 

13.  Bats  are  chiefly  in  forested  parts. 

14.  All  significant  figures  show  animals  to  be  nocturnal;  there  are 
probably  different  factors  producing  this  result  in  the  differ- 
ent regions. 

15.  The  proportion  of  carnivores,  herbivores  and  rodents  in  the 
different  regions  varies  as  follows: 

Desert  - - - 2:1:5  Savanna- forest  - - ~ - 24  : 45  : 10 

Semi-desert-  10  :28  : 8 (Temperate  evergreen)-  5 : 8 : 0 

Steppe  - - - 16  :88  :10  Tropical  evergreen  - - 15  : 39  : 11 

Savanna  - - 15  : 73  : 2 


, . , « . • nt  j 


. 


. 


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65 


IV.  Appendix  of  Scientific  Names  of  Mammals 


Monkeys-  Primates. 

Cerocopithecus : 

Lesser  white-nosed  monkey  . . C. 


Stair’s  guenon  C. 

Moloney's  guenon  C. 

Schmidt' 8 guenon  C. 

Nisnas  monkey  C. 

Schle gel’s  guenon  C. 

Mozambique  monkey  C. 

Syke's  guenon  C. 

Peter's  guenon  C. 

Cape  verve  t C. 

Samango  guenon  C. 

Grivet C. 

Eouterlini's  guenon  C. 

Patas  guenon C. 

Diadem  guenon  C. 

Rump-spotted  guenon  C. 

Green  monkey C. 

Hocheur  monkey  C. 

Buttikofer's  guenon  C. 

Martin' s guenon C. 

Ludio  guenon C. 

Stampfli's  guenon  C. 

Red-eared  guenon  C. 


petaurista  Schreb. 

stairzi  Sclo. 

mol one yi  Sclo. 

schmidti  Matsch. 

pyrrhonotus  Hempr.  and  Ehrenb. 

neglectus  Schleg. 

rufoviridis  Geoffr. 

albigularis  Syk. 

ochraceus  Pet. 

pygerythrus  F.  Cuv. 

samango  Sundev. 

(griseoviridis)  sabaeus  L. 
bout our 1 ini i Gigl. 
pata3  Schreb. 
leucampyx  Fisch. 
opisthostictus  Scl. 
sabaeus  - callitrichus  Geoffr. 

I 

nictitans  L. 
buettikoferi  Jent. 
martini  Waterh. 
ludio  Gray 
stampfli  Jent. 
erythrotis  Waterh. 


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66 


Moustached  guenon 

Campbell ' s guenon  

Bearded  guenon  

Diana  guenon  

Palatine  guenon  

Malbrouck  monkey  

Talapoin  monkey  

Mona  monkey  

Erxleben's  monkey  

Black-footed  monkey  

De  Brazza’s  monkey  

Colobus. 

White-tailed  colobus  . . . . 

Red-crested  guereza  

Bay  monkey  

Crested  colob  

Elack  colob  

Ursine  colob  

White- thighed  colob  

Cercocebus 

Black  raangabey  

Sooty  mangabey  

Anthropopithecus 

Eald  chimpanzee 

Chimpanzee  

Gorilla  

Barb ary  macaque  


C.  cephus  L. 

C.  campbelli  Waterh. 

C.  pogonias  Penn. 

C.  diana  L. 

C.  palatinus  Wagn. 

C.  cynosurus  Scop. 

C.  talapoin  Erxl. 

C.  rnona  Schreb. 

C.  erxlebeni  Puch. 

C.  nigripes  Du  Cnail. 

C.  brazzae  - C.  negiectus. 

C.  caudatus  Thom. 

C.  rufomitratus  Pet. 

C.  ferrugineus  Shaw 

C.  (cri status)  verus  Van  Eened. 

C.  sat anus  Waterh. 

C.  ur sinus  Ogil. 

C.  vellerosus  Is.  Geoffr. 

C.  aterrimus  Oud. 

C.  fuliginosus  Geoffr. 

A.  calvus  Du  Chail, 

A.  troglodytes  L. 

Gorilla  gorilla  Wym. 

Macacus  inuus  L. 


67 


Galago 

Demidoff's  galago  G. 

Senegal  galago G. 

Great  galago G. 

Allen’s  galago  G. 

Papio 

Langheld' s baboon P. 

East  African  baboon P. 

Anubis  baboon P. 

Chacma  baboon  P. 

Pogue r a baboon  P. 

Arabian  baboon P. 

Yellow  baboon P. 

Thoth  baboon P. 

Guinea  baboon P. 

Mandrill P. 

The r c op i the cub 

Dusky  gelada T, 

Gelada  baboon T. 

Perodictus 

Awantibo P* 

Bosnian’s  potto P. 


demidoffi  Fisch. 
senegalensis  Geoffr. 
crassicaudata  Geoffr. 
alleni  Baterh. 

langheldi  Matsch. 
ibeanus  Thorn. 

anubis  F.  Cuv.  and  Geoffr. 

porcarius  Brun. 

doguera  Puch.  and  Schimp. 

hamadryas  L. 

babuin  Desm. 

thoth  Ogil. 

sphinx  L. 

(mormon)  maimon  L. 

(gelada)  obscurus  Heugl. 
gelada  Rupp. 

calabar ensis  Smith 
potto  Geoffr. 


Bats. 

Fhite-winged  bat  Rycticejus  albofuscus 


Megaloglossus 
Hypsignathus  Allen. 


6S 


Shrews. 

Rock  jumping  shrew  

Long-nosed  jumping  shrew  . . . . 
Golden  mole 


Carnivora. 

Fox 

Fennec  

Egyptian  (gray)  jackal 
Harnessed  jackal  . . . 
Silver-backed  jackal  . 

Pigmy  jackal  

Elack-backed  jackal 


Roussettus  Gray. 

Epomophorus  Eenn. 

Rhinolophus  aethiops  Pet. 

Megaderma  frons  Geoffr. 

Hipposiderus  fuliginoeus  Phyll 
and  Eonap. 

Nyceteris  hispida  Pet. 

N.  grandis  Pet. 

Vesper tiio  stampfli 
V.  nanus 

Pipistrellus  minutus 
P.  tenuipinnis 
Kerivoula  africana  Gray. 

Macroscelides  tetradactylus 
Rhynchocyon-  4 sp. 

Chrysochloris 
Crocidura-  2 sp.  Wagl. 

Canis  famelicus 
C.  zebra 
C.  lupaster 
C.  adustis 
C.  variegatus 
C.  mengesi 

C.  mesomelas  Schreb. 


' ' • 

. 

. 

- r ■ 


■ 



. l.i  AO  f.  1 

> • i « 


69 


Cuberow 

Lion 

Burchell's  cat  

Leopard  . . . . 

(Gray)  wild  cat 

Small-spotted  serval  

Caracal  

African  tiger  cat  

Brown  hyaena  

Spotted  hyaena  

Striped  hyaena  

Pencilled  mungoose  

Red- tailed  mungoose  

White-tailed  mungoose  

Ichneumon  

Slender  mungoose  

Mungoose  

Banded  mungoose  

Zebra  mungoose  

Cusimanse  

Gambian  mungoose  

Badger  

Gray  meercat  

Ci ve t cat  

Hunting  dog  

Chita  


C . si me  ns i s Rupp . 

Felis  leo  L. 

F.  nigripes 
F.  pardus  L. 

F.  ocreata 
F.  Servalina 
F.  caracal 
F.  celidogaster 
Hyaena  brunnea 
H.  crocutas  Erxl. 

H.  hyaena  L. 

Cynectes 

Herpes tea  sanguineus 
H.  alb icau data 
H.  pluto 
H.  gracilis 

Edeogale  crassicaudata  Pet. 
E.  puisa 

Crossarchus  fasciatus 
Crossarchus  zebra 
C.  obscurus  Geoffr.  and  Cuv. 
C.  gambianus 

Mellivora  capensis  True. 
Suricata  tetradactyla. 
Viverra  civetta 
Lycaon  pictus  Temm. 
Cynallurus  jubatus 


. 


. 


. 


. 


.. 


70 


Genet  

Palm  civet 

Pear 

Linsang  . . . . 

Palm  civet  

Clawless  otter  

Spotted-necked,  otter  . . . 

Ungulates. 

Bubal  hartebeest  

Swayne's  hartebeest  . . . . 

Coke  hartebeest  

Neumann’s  hartebeest  . . . 

Jackson  hartebeest  . . . . 

Uganda  hartebeest  

Nakuru  hartebeest  

Lichtenstein’s  hartebeest  . . . . E.  lichtensteini  Pet. 


Tora  hartebeest  

Zulu  hartebeest  

Western  hartebeest  . . . . 

Red  buffalo 

B . nanus 

Lelwel  hartebeest  

Bontebok  

Blesbok  

Topi 

Tsessebe  

Arrola 

Somali  dikdik  

I 


1 


... 


. 


71 


Salt’s  dikdik  . . . 
Phillip's  dikdik  . 
Dam  sir  a dikdik  . . . 
Gunther's  dikdik 
Swayne's  dikdik  . . 
white-spotted  dikdik 
Harar  dikdik  . . . 
Kirk  dikdik  .... 
Thomas'  dikdik  . . 
Erlanger's  dikdik  . 

Duikerbok  

Brown  duiker  . . . 
Red  duiker  .... 
Blue  duiker  .... 
Red-flanked  duiker 
Johnston's  duiker  . 
Yellow-backed  duiker 
Uganda  duiker  . . . 
White-lipped  duiker 
Banded  duiker  . . . 
Jentink's  duiker 

Bay  duiker  

Black-faced  duiker  . 
Whi te-bellied  duiker 
Ogilby's  duiker  . . 
Brook's  duiker  . . 
Peter's  duiker  . . 


Madoqua  sal ti ana  Blainv. 
M.  phillipsi  Thom. 

M.  damarensis  Gunth. 

M.  guentheri  Thom. 

M.  swaynii  Thom. 

M.  nasoguttata 
M.  hararensis 
M.  kirki  Gunth. 

M.  thomasi 
M.  erlangeri 
Cephalophus  grimmia  L. 

C. 

C.  natalensis 
C.  monticola  Thunb. 

C.  rufilatus 
C.  johnstoni 
C.  sylvicultor 
C.  aequatorialis 
C.  leucochilus 
C.  doriae 
C.  jentinki 
C.  dorsalis  Gray 
C.  nigrifrons 
C.  leucogaster 
C.  ogilbyi 
C.  brookei 
C.  callipygus 


* 

• 

72 


Maxwell's  duiker  

Black  duiker  

Ituri  yellow-hacked  duiker  . . . 

Ituri  red  duiker  

Alexander's  duiker  

Weyn'  s duiker 

Leopold's  duiker 

Chestnut  duiker  

Robert's  duiker  

Heck's  duiker  

Urori  duiker  

Crowned  duiker  

Rhodesian  yellow-backed  duiker  . 

Walker's  duiker  

Nyasa  blue  duiker  

Dama  gazelle  

Grant's  gazelle  

Speke '3  gazelle  

Pelzeln's  gazelle  

Peter ' s gazelle  

Sommerring' s gazelle  

Thomson' 3 gazelle  

Dorcas  gazelle  

Red-fronted  gazelle  

Loder's  gazelle  

Heuglin's  gazelle  

Mongala  gazelle  


c. 

maxwell i 

c. 

niger 

c. 

i turiensis 

centralis 

c. 

claudi 

c. 

weynsi 

c. 

leopoldi 

c. 

castaneus 

c. 

robertsi 

hecki 

c. 

lugens 

c. 

coronatus  Gray 

c. 

coxi 

walkeri 

c. 

nyasae 

Gazelle  dama 

G. 

grant i Brook. 

spekei  Blyth. 

G. 

pelzelni  Kohl. 

Gr* 

soemmerringi  Cretzsch 

G. 

thomsoni  Gunth. 

G. 

dorcas  L. 

G. 

ruf ifrons 

G. 

G. 

tilonura 

73 


Erythraean  gazelle  

Isabelle  gazelle  

Atlas  gazelle  

Lechwe  

Black  lechwe  

Crawshay's  defassa  

Waterbuck  

Vaughan's  kob  

Dusky  kob 

White-eared  kob  

Abyssinian  defassa  

Singsing  waterbuck  (defassa)  . . 

Kob 

Puku 

Euffon's  kob 

Mrs.  Gr ay 1 s wa t e rb uck 

Harnessed  antelope  

Situtunga  

Bashbuck  

Eland  

Lord  Derby's  eland  

Arui 

Nubian  ibex  

Abyssinian  ibex  

Addax  

Oryx 

White  oryx 


G.  isabella 
G.  cuvier i 
Cobus  leche 
C.  smithemani 
C.  defassa  crawshayi 
C.  ellipsiprymnus  Ogil. 

C.  vaughani 
C.  nigricans 

C.  leucotis  Lecht.  and  Pet. 
C.  defassa  typicus 
C.  unctuosus  Lauril. 

C. 

C.  vardoni  Livingstone 
C.  coba 
C.  maria  Gray 
Tragelaphus  scriptus 
T.  spekei 
T.  scriptus 
Tauro tragus  oryx 
T.  derbianus 
Ovis  lervia 
Capra  nubiana  Cuv. 

C.  vali 

Addax  nasomaculata 
Oryx  beisa  Rupp. 

0.  leucoryx 


Gemsbok Oryx  gazella  L. 

Beira  Dorcotragus  megalotis  Meng. 

Kudu  Strepsiceros  strepsiceros  Pall 

Lesser  kudu  . . S.  imberbis  Blyth. 

Striped  gnu  Connochaetes  taurinus  Burch. 

Black  gnu C.  gnu  Ziramermann 

Steinbok  Rhaphiceros  campestris  Thunb. 

Sharpe's  steinbok  R,  sharpei 

Grysbok R.  melanotis 

Gray  reedbuck Cervicapra  arundinum  Eodd. 

Bohor  reedbuck C.  bohor.  Rupp. 

Mountain  reedbuck  C.  fulvorufula 

Red  buffalo  Bos  caffer  thierrvi 

Buffalo  B.  caffer 

Senegalese  buffalo  E.  caffer  planiceros 

Cape  buffalo  B.  caffer  typicus 

Hegoleh  antelope  Neo tragus  madoqua 

Royal  antelope N.  pygmaeus 

Bates'  pigmy  antelope N.  batesi 

Livingstone's  suni  N.  livingstonianus 

Suni N.  moschatus 

Cotton's  oribi  Oribia  cottoni  Thom. 

Gosling's  oribi  0.  goslingi 

Peter's  oribi  0.  hastata 

Abyssinian  oribi  0.  montana  Cretzschmar 

Haggard's  oribi  0.  haggardi  Thom. 

Kenia  oribi 0.  kenyae 


75 


Gambian  oribi  0.  nigricaudata 

Gerenuk  Lithocranius  walleri  Brook. 

Clark' 8 gazelle Arnmodorcas  clarkei  Thom. 

Klipspringer  Oreotragus  (saltator)  oreotragus 

Zimmer. 

Springbok AntidLorcas  euchore  marsupialis 

Zimmer. 

Angola  pali  Aepyceros  petersi  Boca. 

Irapalla  A.  melampus 

Mouflon Ovis  musimon  Pall. 

Red  deer Cervus  elaphus 

Fallow  deer C.  dama  L. 

Tree  hyrax  Procavia  dorsalis 

Water  chevrotain  Dorcatherium  aquaticum 

Bongo  Boocercus  euryceros  Thom. 

Okapi  Ocapia  johnstoni 

Blaauwbok  Hippotragus  leucophaeus 

Sable  H.  niger 

Roan H.  equinus 

Mountain  zebra  Fquus  zebra  L. 

Grevy' s zebra  E.  grevyi  Milne  Edw. 

Grant's  zebra  

Burchell's  zebra  


African  wild  ass  E.  asinus  somalicus  Sclater 

Quagga  zebra  

Giraffe  Giraffa  Camelopardalis  L. 

5-horned  giraffe  

Somali  giraffe  G.  reticulata 

Rhinoceros  Rhinoceros 


. 


’ 

. 

. 


. 


76 


1 


White  rhinoceros  

Elephant  

Hippopotamus  

Pigmy  hippopotamus  .... 

Red  river-hog  

Johnston's  hush-pig  . . . 

Bush-pig  

Wart-hog  

Wild  swine 

Forest  hog  

Rodents 

Spiny  mice 

Egyptian  jerboa  

Sand  mice  

Broad-tailed  jerboa  . . . 

. . . Platycercomys 

Barbary  mouse  

Field  mouse  

Gundi 

. . Ctenodactylus  gundi 

Gundi  

. . Pectinator  spekii  Blyth. 

Naked  sand  rat  

Shrew  mice  

Striped  mice  

Reed  rats  

Jumping  mice  . . . . 
Gigantic  field  mouse 
Brown  rat  


Common  black  rat 


. . 


77 


1 


Alexandrine  rat  

Pouched  rat  

Ground  squirrel  

Tan  squirrel  

European  squirrel  

Fulgent  flying  squirrel  . . . . 

True  squirrel  6 sp 

Stanger's  squirrel  

Pigmy  flying  squirrel  

Ground  squirrel  . 

Pigmy  squirrel  

Porcupine  

Rabbi  t 

Rock  rabbit 

African  jumping  hare  

Marmot  

Cape  hare  

Dormice  

Ghueti 


Mus  musculoides  emesi  Hel. 
Cricetomys  gambianus  Waterh. 


Sciurus  vulgaris  L. 
Anomalurus  fulgens 


Xerus  erythropus  lacustris  Thom. 
Nannosciurus  minutus 
Hystrix  cristata  L. 

Lepus  saxatilis 
Pedetes  cafer  Pall. 


Graphiurus  crassicaudata 
G.  nagtglasii 


Edentates 

Armadillo  

Phatagin  

Long-tailed  pangolin  . 
Short-tailed  pangolin  . 
Ant-bear,  (earth  pig  ) 
Ground  pig  


Manis  gigantea 
M.  tricuspis  Rafin. 

M.  longicaudata 

Orycteropus  afer  Geoffr. 
Thrynomys  swinderenianus 


V.  ACKNOWLEDGMENT  AND  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

It  is  a pleasure  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  of 
Dr.  V.  E.  Shelf ord,  under  whose  direction  this  study  has  been 
made . 


-79- 

Anderson,  Karl  Johan- 

1857.  Lake  Ngami  ; or  Explorations  and  discoveries  during 
four  years'  wanderings  in  the  wilds  of  southwestern  Africa. 
New  Yo  rk. 

Baker,  Sir  Samuel  White. 

1868.  The  Albert  N'yanza,  Great  Basin  of  the  Nile,  and  Ex- 
plorations of  the  Nile  sources.  Philadelphia. 

Bartholemew,  J.  G. 

1917.  The  Advanced  Atlas  of  Physical  and  Political  Geography, 
Oxford  Uni.  Press.  London. 

Doubleday,  Page  and  Co's. 

1917.  Geographical  Manual  and  New  Atlas.  New  York. 

Dracopoli,  I.  N. 

1914.  Through  Jubaland  to  the  Lorian  Swamp.  Philadelphia. 
Dugmore,  A.  Radcliffe. 

1910.  Camera  Adventures  in  the  African  Wilds.  New  York. 

Du  Plessis,  J. 

1917.  Thrice  through  the  Dark  Continent.  London, 
de  Filippi,  Filippo. 

19  09.  Ruwenzori.  London. 

Fo  rbes , Henry  0. 

1896.  Lloyd's  Natural  History,  Vol.  1,  2.  London. 

Friedrich,  Adolph. 

1913.  From  the  Congo  to  the  Niger  of  the  Nile.  London. 

Hardy,  M.  E. 

1920.  The  Geography  of  Plants.  Oxford. 


, 


1 


. 


, 


. 

. 


. . 


, 

t 

-eo- 

Ho  lu b , Dr . Iknil. 

1881.  Seven  Years  in  South  Africa.  London. 

Hurst,  H.  E. 

1910.  A Journey  from  Wadi  Haifa  to  Aswan;  A Journey  in  the 
Western  Desert  of  Egypt.  Cairo  Scientific  Journal,  4:  8-10; 
268-278. 

Johnston,  H.  H. 

1884.  The  River  Congo.  London. 

1906.  Liberia.  London. 

Klunzinger,  C.  B. 

1878.  Upper  Egypt;  Its  People  and  its  Products.  New  York. 
Knox,  Alexander. 

1911.  The  Climate  of  the  Continent  of  Africa.  Cambridge. 
Kdnig,  Alexander. 

1893.  Tierleben  in  der  Algierischen  und  Tunisischen  Sahara. 
Lydekker,  Richard. 

1908.  The  Game  Animals  of  Africa.  London. 

New  Natural  History.  1,  2,  3.  New  York. 

Martin,  Annie. 

1891.  Home  Life  on  an  Ostrich  Earn.  New  York. 

Monteiro,  Joachim  John. 

1875.  Angola  and  the  River  Congo.  London. 

Monteiro,  Rose. 

1891.  Delagoa  Bay,  its  Natives  and  Natural  History.  London. 
Passarge,  Siegfried. 

1908.  Sudafrika.  Eine  Landes-  Volks-  und  Wirtschaf tskunde. 
Leipzig. 


-81- 


■ 

Roosevelt,  Theodore  and  Heller,  Edmund. 

1914.  Life  Histories  of  African  Game  Animals.  Hew  York. 
Schillings,  C.  G. 

1903.  Flashlights  in  the  Jungle.  New  York. 

Schweinfurth,  Dr.  Georg. 

1874.  The  Heart  of  Africa,  Three  Years’  Travel  and  Adventure 
in  the  Unexplored  Regions  of  Central  Africa.  New  York. 

Scully,  W.  C. 

1915.  Lodges  in  the  Wilderness.  New  York. 

Selous,  Frederick  Courtenay. 

1908.  African  Nature  Notes  and  Reminiscences.  London. 
Solynous,  B. 

1880.  Desert  Life,  Recollections  of  an  Expedition  in  the 
Soudan.  London. 

Stanley,  Henry  M. 

1879.  Through  the  Dark  Continent.  New  York. 

St evenson-Hamilton,  Major  James. 

1912.  Animal  Life  in  Africa.  London. 

Waihel,  Dr.  Leo. 

Lehensformen  und  Lehensweise  der  Tierwelt  im  tropischen 
Afrika.  Mittelungen  der  Geog.  Sos.  im  Hamburg,  27.  Hamburg. 


Ward,  Rowland. 

1914.  Records  of  Big  Game.  London. 


Reg 


Extrerr 
Sahara  . 
Oases  . 
Damara  . 

Semi-I] 
Angola  C 
Sudan  Se 
Kalahari 
Karoo 
Atlas  III 

Steppe 
Somali Is 
Abyssinc 
Egypt iar 
Hoogeve] 
! Mo zambiq 

Alpine 

Sava nr 
Boschve] 
i Sudanese 
Zambesi 
East  Aft 

Savant 
Draken.be 
Abyss ini 
Light  Fc 

Temper 
MediterJ 
: South  Cs 

Tropic 
Guinea.  (\ 
Congo  Bs 


TABLE  I. 


Region 


Extreme  Desert 

Sahara  

Dases  

Darnara  


Number 

of 

mammal s 
in 
region 

8 
6 

8 


Semi-Desert 

Angola  Coast  

Sudan  Semi-desert.  . . . 

Kalahari  

Karoo  

Atlas  Intermont  plateaus 


Steppe 

Somaliland  

Abyss ino -Eritrean  Foothills . 

Egyptian  Sudan  

Hoogeveld  

lozambique  and  Gazaland  . . 

Alpine  Steppe  

Savanna 

Boschveld  

Sud,  nese  Savanna  

Zambesi  Basin 


13 

1 4 

15 
27 

7 


68 

10 

22 

31 

10 

21 


24 
37 
37 

East  African  Mountain  Region  61 

Savanna- Forest 

Drake nberg  

Abyssinian  Highlands  . 

Light  Forests  and  Parks 

Temperate  Evergreen  Forest 
Mediterranean  Africa  ... 

South  Cape  of  South  Africa 

Tropic  M Evergreen  Forest 

I Guinea  Coast 

Congo  Basin  


55 

18 

37 


13 

3 


Q8 

57 


Size  of  herd 


Time  of  birth 


Daily  Rhythm 


% whose~J 


habits 

known 

0 

0 

0 


29 

14 

20 

13 

14 


47 

13 

41 

39 

0 

10 


47 

19 

82 

32 


45 

10 

09 


23 

33 


4 

p, 


are 

1- 


2 3- 


50 

50 

75-  50 
40-  20 
50-  50 


55-  52 
100 

33-  45 
83-  25 


50-100 


43-  71 
71  29-- 

50-  25 
30-  35 


65- 


U" 

50 


67  33 


75 

40- 


30 


Social  Tendencies 


1 0-^0 

of 

1/0 

50+kno-  -u 

1 st 



2nd 

3rd 

4 th 

any  % 
time  known 

d. 

cr . 

n. 

* 

known 

pure  1 

mixed 

12 

100 

38 

100 

25 

1 nn 

0 

67 

100 

1 6 

100 

0 

25 

50 

7 

1 00 

21 

100 

14 

100! 

50 

0 

14 

60  i 

50 

14 

100; 

25 

25 

25 

20  | 

oq 

40 

-20 

20 

^0- 

100 

ox 

80 

20 

60-- 

60 

21 

17 

17 

33 

30 

22 

78 

28 

88 

12 

0 

14 

100 1 

42-- 

15 

25 

1 6 

1 4 

39 

30 

39 

1 1 

56 

27 

68  | 

32 

' 0 

a 

y 

100 

33-- 

45 

. 9 

^0 

50 

50 

r>~ 

20 

50- 

20 

n 

50 

50 

8 

p 

51 

25 

12 

31 

6 

6o 

5 

30 

65 

26 

75 

oc; 

— -j 

0 

1 1 

1 0 - 

0 

57 

73 

o 

o 

o 8 

64 

73 

12 

75 

13 

33 

100 

OQ 

1 1 

50 

50 

50 

19 

29 

71 

14 

60 

40 

35-- 

33 

n 

1 

7 

84 

39 

13 

40- 

67 

26 

67 

35 

60 

20 

16 

50 

10 

33 

20 

4r- 

55 

21 

O 

31 

31 

12 

40 

17 

1 50 

;47 

47 

68 

09 

1 85 

05 

100 

50 

0 

10 

;50 

' 50 

20 

100 

25 

12 

3 

100 

24 

33 

67 

16 

100 

0 

23 

33 

*7 

P 

100 

100 

33 

100 

33 

100 

25 

0 

<*> 

1 no 

4 

100 

10 

33- 

50 

5° 

5 

100 

— 

— 

GOODE’S  SEr 


GOODE’S  SERIES  OF  BASE  MAPS  AND  GRAPHS  . AFRICA  ON  THE  SINUSOIDAL  PROJECTION,  NO. 


Copyright  1920,  by  the  University  of  Chicago 


